iG" 


.1 


Grfene's   Ano-^y  "is. 


A  TREATISE 


^^• 


THE   STRUCT UilL 


OF  THE 


Fr-LISII.L.LNeiJAa 


fs'V  • 


ANALl 


^SStFIf'^ 


<  ii 


SENTLXC^ 


•vD   Tiinjr 


A  J 


:%r 


li.LUiSXR 


TO   Li'L  lTi>E  OK  b( 


"ll- 


t 


■>i/"V-    \  j-v'-w  » 


BY  SAMITE! 


;Ki>f.;'t  of  vc^iii..' 


iy 


*•^-» 
f 


\\ 


1  -  >  ■:^ . 


(vi^yiar 


•*v 


C  0, 


«tiy 


fi>-_- 


GIFT  OF 
Dr.    Horace   Ivie 


rl-<^/^ 


GREENE'S   ANALYSIS. 


A  TREATISE  ^ 

ON  TKB 

STRIJCTUEE 

OP  THE 

ENGLISH  LANGUAGE; 

OR  THE 

ANALYSIS  AND  CLASSIFICATION 


OP 


SENTENCES  AND  THEIR  COMPONENT  PARTS 

i  ■      . 


'<-.>.        f        :  f 


ILLUSTRATIONS  AND  iEXERCIS^.Si' 


ADAPTED^ 


TO  THE   USE   Cr  SCHOOLSf 


By  SAMUEL   S.    GREENE,  A.  M. 

SUPEia.NTJCNDCXT  OF  PUBLIC  SCnOOLS,  PROVIDENCE,  AND  PROFESSOR 
OF  THE  NORMAL  DEPAKTMENT  OF  BROWN  UNIVERSITY. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

H.    OOWPERTHWAIT    &    CO. 

1862. 


^ 


0^ 


XL 


GIFT  OF 


fiatered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  tl«  year  1846 
By  Samuel  -S.  Greene, 

In  the  Clerk's  OfSce  of  the  District  Court  of  vhe  iiistrict  of 

Massacr.iise'tts. 

EDUCATION  OEPT 


r 


PREFACE 


The  following  treatise  contains,  as  its  title  indicates,  a  system 
for  analyzing  sentences.  In  the  preparation  of  the  work,  it  has 
been  the  aim  of  the  author,  first,  to  determine  the  number  and 
the  nature  of  the  elements  which  can  enter  into  the  structure  of 
a  sentence,  and,  secondly,  to  ascertain  their  various  forms  and 
conditions.  Notwithstanding  the  almost  infinite  variety  of  sen- 
tences with  which  the  language  abounds,  it  is  worth}'  of  remark 
that  the  number  of  different  elements  in  any  sentence  can  never 
exceed  five.  It  is  equally  remarkable  that  the  offices  wJiich  these 
elements  perform  are  few  and  uniform,  although  they  may  as- 
sume an  endless  variety  of  forms. 

As  to  ihe  forms  of  the  elenients,  it  would  seem,  at  first,  a  hope- 
less task  to  attempt  a  classification  of  them  ;  yet  they  are  found 
to  differ  essentially  from  each  other  only  in  three  respects.  An 
element  may  be  a  word  joined  to  another  without  a  connective, 
or  it  may  be  a  word  Joined  by  means  of  a  preposition,  —  both  to- 
gether forming  a /jAr^se ;  or  it  may  be  a  ffabordinate  proposition, 
joined  by  a  connective,  and  constituting  a  clause.  Any  element 
may  also  be  subject  to  three  different  states  or  conditions.  It 
may  be  simple.,  that  is,  unmodified  or  uncompounded  ;  it  may 
be  complex,  that  is,  modified  by  another  simple  element ;  or  it 
may  be  compound,  that  is,  it  may  consist  of  two  or  more  simple 
elements,  which  in  no  way  modify  each  other.  The  same  dis- 
tinction prevails  in  entire  sentences.  A  sentence  containing  but 
one, proposition  is  siinplc  ;  a  sentence  containing  two  propositions, 
one  of  which  modifies  the  other,. is  complex;  a  sentence  contain- 
ino-  two  propositions  which  in  no  way  modify  each  other,  is  com- 
pound. 

Some  of  the  numerous  advantages  arising  from  studying  gram- 
mar, or  rather  language,  through  the  structure  of  sentences, 
are  the  following:  —  (1.)  As  a  sentence  is  the  expression  of  a 
thonirht,  and  as  the  elements  of  a  sentence  are  expressions  for 
the  elements  of  thought,  the  pupil  who  is  taught  to  separate  a 
sentence  into  its  elements,  is  learning  to  analyze  thought,  and 
consequently  to  think.  (2.)  The  relations  between  different 
forms  of  thought  and  appropriate  forms  of  expression,  are  seen 
most  clearly  by  means  of  analysis  and  construction.  (  3.)  A  large 
proportion  of  the  elements  of  sentences  are  not  single  words,  but 
coinhinatioits  or  groups  of  words.  These  groups  perform  the  office 
of  the  substantive,  the  adjective,  or  the  adverb,  and,  in  some  one  of 


924185 


4  PREFACE. 

these  relations,  enter  in  as  the  component  parts  of  a  sentence. 
The  pupil  who  learns  to  determine  the  elements  of  a  sentence, 
must,  therefore,  learn  the  force  of  these  combinations  before  he 
geparates  them  into  the  single  words  which  compose  them.  This 
advantage  is  wholly  lost  in  the  ordinary  methods  of  parsing. 
(4.)  But  the  grand  advantage  to  be  gained  from  this  method  may 
be  seen  in  the  facility  which  it  affords  the  learner  for  constructing 
the  language.  If  English  Grammar  teaches  "  the  art  of  speaking 
and  writing  the  English  language  correctly,"  —  the  only  successful 
method  of  obtaining  a  knowledge  of  that  art  is,  by  means  of  con- 
struction and  analysis.  This  system  cannot  be  pursued  with  even 
tolerable  success,  without  requiring  the  pupil  to  construct  re- 
peatedly the  various  forms  of  sentences  and  elements  of  sen- 
tences.' Such  exercises  afford  the  teacher  an  opportunity  of  cor- 
recting all  errors  in  orthography,  punctuation,  construction,  and 
the  use  of  words. 

It  may  be  further  added,  that  this  system  is  only  applying  to 
the  English  what,  in  our  higher  seminaries,  is  applied  to  tlie  classic 
languages.  And  as  these  seminaries  are  to  be  supplied  mainly 
from  our  common  schools,  a  demand  is  created  for  a  more  philo- 
sophical plan  of  teaching  the  English  language. 

The  parts  of  this  work  are  so  classified  and  arranged  that  the 
learner  commences  with  the  simplest  forms,  and  advances  by  a 
natural  and  easy  gradation  to  the  nigst  difficult.  A  brief  system 
of  etymology  is  introduced  in  connection  with  the  analysis ;  but, 
that  it  may  not  interrupt  the  progress  of  the  work,  it  is  arranged 
in  an  Appendix,  and  is  referred  to  as  the  learner  advances.  The 
parts  in  large  type  are  to  be  studied,  while  those  in  small  type 
are  intended  for  the  teacher  and  the  more  advanced  pupil.  It 
may  be  well,  on  going  through  the  work  for  the  first  time,  to  omit 
some  portions  of  the  larger  type.  It  is  the  author  s  intention,  as 
soon  as  practicable,  to  prepare  an  abridgment  of  the  work,  in 
which  the  most  important  principles  only  will  be  discussed,  and 
accompanied  with  such  exercises  as  will  adapt  the  work  to  a 
younger  class  of  pupils. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  treatise,  the  author  acknowledges  his 
indebtedness  to  the  excellent  Latin  Grammar  of  Andrews  and 
Stoddard,  and  especially  to  that  of  Dr.  Kiihner,  translated  from  the 
German  by  Professor  J.  T.  Chaniplin,  of  Waterville  College  ;  alsa 
to  the  invaluable  Greek  Grammars  of  Professor  A.  Crosby  and  of 
Dr.  Kiihner:  those  of  Dr.  Kiihner  were  translated,  the  larger  by 
Professor  l^.  B.  Edwards  and  S.  H.  Taylor,  of  Andover,  the 
smaller  by  S.  li.  Taylor,  principal  of  Phillips  Academy.  Much 
aid  has  been  derived  from  the  work  of  George  Crane,  and  from 
that  of  De  Sacy,  on  General  Grammar. 

Cherishing  the  hope  that  this  work  may  contribute,  m  some 
small  degree,  to  improve  the  methods  of  teaching  the  English 
language,  the  author  submits  it  to  the  judgment  of  a  candid 
public. 

S.  S.  GREENE. 

Boston,  1847. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER    1. 

ELEMENTS  OF  THE  FIRST  CLASS 

PASS. 

Saot.  1.   rreliminary  Kemarks  and  Definitions, 10 

IL  The  Proposition.  —  Principal  Elements, *6 

IIL   Modifications  of  the  Subject, 20 

1.  Number  of  the  Subject, 21 

2.  (iender  of  the  Subject, 22 

3-   I'erson  of  the  Subject, 24 

4     Uase  of  the  Subject, 26 

IV.  Moditications  of  the  Predicate, 28 

1.  Modifications  of  the  Predicate-Nominative,  ......  28 

2.  Modifications  of  the  Predicate-Adjective, 30 

3.  Modifications  of  the  Verb, 83 

N  umber  and  Person  of  the  Verb, 34 

Modeof  the  Verb, 36 

Tense  of  the  Verb, 39 

V.   Adjective  Element,.... 47 

1.  Adjective  Words, 49 

2.  Nouns  or  Pronouns 53 

VL   The  Objective  Element, 66 

1.  Single  Object, 58 

2.  Double  Object, 59 

VIL    The  Adverbial  Element, 62 

1.  Adverbs  denoting  Place,  63 

2.  Adverbs  denoting  Time, 63 

3.  Adverbs  of  Cause  or  Source, 63 

4.  Adverbs  denoting  Manner, 64 

Comparison  of  Adverbs, 65 

VIII.  Interjections  and  the  Case  Independent 68 

IX.  Complex  Elements, 69 

X.  Compound  Elements, ^ 78 

XI.  Several  Elements  of  the  same  Name.  —  Recapitulation, .  80 

1* 


6  CONTENTS, 

CHAPTER    II 

ELEMENTS   OF  THE   SECOND  CLASS.  — PHRASES. 

FA  us. 

Sect  I.   Nature  of  Elements  of  Second  Class, 84 

L   Component  Parts  of  the  Phrase, 85 

2.   The  Phrase  considered  as  a  Whole, 87 

II.   The  Phrase  used  as  a  Principal  Element, 88 

1.  The  Subject, 88 

2.  The  Predicate, 92 

III.  The  Phrase  used  as  the  Adjective  Element, 95 

IV.  The  Phrase  used  as  the  Objective  Element, 98 

1.  Single  Obiect 9S 

2.  liouble  Object,.... .- 09 

v'    The  Phrase  used  as  the  Adverbial  Element, tfl 

1.  Phrases  denoting  Place, lOi. 

2.  Phrases  denoting  Time, 105 

3.  Phrases  denoting  Cause  or  Source, 10/ 

-.  Phrases  denoting  Manner, 107 

VI.   Complex  Elements, Ill 

VII,   Compound  Elements, 117 

VIII.    Several  Elements  of  the  same  Name, 119 

IX.   Interrogative  Sentences, 121 

1.  Direct  Interrogative  Sentences, 122 

2.  Indirect  Interrogative  Sentences, 123 


CHAPTER    1X1. 

ELEMENTS   OF    THE  THIHD   CLASS.  — SUBORDINATE 

CLAUSES. 

Sect.  I.   Nature  of  Elements  of  the  Third  Class, 127 

1.  Component  Parts  of  the  Subordinate  Clause, ....  128 

2.  The  Clause  considered  as  a  Whole, 128 

3.  Uses  of  the  Substantive  Clause, 129 

II.   Subordinate  Clauses  used  as  Principal  Elements, 130 

I..   The  Substantive  Clause  used  as  Subject, 131 

V     The  Predicate, 134 

III.    Subordinate  Clauses  used  as  the  Adjective  Element,  ...  13-5 

1.  Adjective  Clauses, 135 

2.  Substantive  Clauses, 138 


CONTENTS. 

FASZ. 

Sect,  IV.  Subordinate  Clauses  used  as  the  ObjectiTe  Element,..  141 

1.  Single  Object, 141 

Direct  and  Indirect  Quotation, 142 

2,  Double  Object, 143 

V.  Subordinate  Clauses  used  as  the  Adverbial  Element,  .  147 

1.  Clauses  denoting  Place, 148 

2.  Clauses  denoting  Time, • 14r 

3.  Clauses  denoting  Causal  Relations, 151 

Clauses  wMch  denote  a  Cause  or  Reason, .  152 

Conditional  Clauses, 154 

Final  Clauses, 156 

Adversative  Clauses, 158 

4.  Adverbial  Clauses  denoting  Manner, 160 

VI.  Conqjlex  Elements  containing  Clauses, 162 

Vn.   Compound  Elements  of  the  Third  Class, 164 

VIII.   Several  Elements  of  the  same  Name, =   166 

IX.   Abridged  Propositions, 67 


CHAPTER    IV. 

COORDINATE  CLAUSES. 

Sect.  I.   Copulative  Coordinate  Clauses, 17V 

II.   Adversative  Coordinate  Clauses 18C 

III.  Alternative  Coordinate  Clauses, 181 

IV.  Recapitulation, 183 


CHAPTER    V. 

VARIOUS  PROPERTIES  OF  SENTENCES. 

Sect.  I.   Sentences  considered  as  a  Whole, 186 

II.  Arrangement  of  the  Elements, 18^ 

1.  Arrangement  of  the  Principal  Elements, 11? 

2.  Arrangement  of  the  Adjective  Elenxent, 19 

3.  Arrangement   of    the    Objective   and  Adverbial 

Elements, Tjl 

1X1.   Peculiarities  of  Structure, 195 

1.  Peculiarities  in  the  Structure  of  Sentences, 195 

2.  Peculiarities  in  the  use  of  the  Parts  of  a  Sen- 

tence,   197 

I V.    Eauivalents ...  200 


8  CONTENTS, 


APPENDIX. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 

FAOB 

Lsssoiy  L   Letters, 203 

II.   Syllables  and  Words, 205 


ETYMOLOGY. 

Lesson  I,  Parts  of  Speech, , 206 

II.   Classes  of  the  Noun  and  Pronoun, 207 

III.  Number  of  the  Noun  and  Pronoun, 209 

IV.  Gender  of  the  Noun  and  Pronoun, 2*.C 

V.   Person  of  the  Noun  and  Pronoun, 211 

VI.   Case  of  the  Noun  and  Pronoun, 21:4 

VII.   Adjective  Words, 214 

VIII.   Classes  of  Verbs 21T 

IX.  Number,  Person,  and  Voice  of  the  Verb, ,  223 

X.   Mode  of  the  Verb, 224 

XI.   Tense  of  the  Verb, 227 

XII.    Adverbs 240 

XIII.  Prepositions, 241 

XIV.  Interrogatives, 24'i 

XV.  Connectives,. <, ;.  242 


SYNTAX. 

Rules  ^'or  The  i^jiject, 244 

"  '  The  Predicate, .'. 244 

"  "  The  Adjective  Element, 244 

"  "  The  Objective  Element, 244 

"  ♦•  The  Adverbial  Element 245 

"  "  Interjections  and  the  Case  Independent, 246 

"  "  Connectives 246 


PROSODY,... 248 

PUNCTUATION, m 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 


1.  Language  is  the  mediuni  through  which  we 
communicate  our  thoughts. 

2.^  Discourse  is  a  continued  series  of  thoughts, 
each  expressed  by  an  assemblage  of  words  called  a 
sentence. 

3.  'A  series  of  sentences  relating  to  the  same 
subject,  or  the  same  branch  of  the  subject,  is  called 
a  partigrajph. 

4.  '  A  sentence  may  be  considered  as  a  luholc,  or 
m  refere]ice  to  its  component  parts.  ' 

5.  The  component  parts  of  a  sentence  are  the 
words,  jjhrases,  and  clauses  which  enter  into  its 
structure.    '' 

6.  '  A  sentence,  considered  as  a  whole,  either 
declares  something,  asks  a  question,  expresses  a  com- 
mand, or  contains  an  exclamation.  ^ 

The  following  are  examples  of  each  kind  of  sentence : 
\ Declarative.  "There  are  certain  social  principles  in 
human  nature,  from  which  we  may  draw  tho  most  solid 
conclusions  with  respect  to  the  conduct  of  individuals  and 
communities."  —  Interrogative.  "When  was  it  that  Home 
attracted  most  strongly  the   admiration  of  mankind,  and 


10  ANALYSIS    OF   SENTENCES. 

impressed.  t^.e  deepest  sentimcrst  of  fear  on  the  hearts  of 
her  enemies  r'^.^ — lmp(?rht'i.ie.  "  "  Shut  now  the  volume  of" 
histor^jjin^.toll  rce^.o^n,  any  principle  of  human  probability, 
what's*ha>r'l?e'  Che..fa,fe«of  .'thr^  ha>:idful  of  adventurers/'  — 
Exclamatory.  '■'■  How  different  would  have  been  our  lot 
this  day,  both  as  men  and  women,  had  the  Revolution 
failed  of  success ! " 

7.  The  component  parts  of  a  sentence  are  called 
its  elements. 

8. ;  A  sentence  may  contain  jive  distinct  elements. 
Of  these,  two  are  indispensable  to  its  formation, 
and  are  hence  called  principal  elements  The 
other  three  are  dependent  on  these,  and  are  hence 
called  SUBORDINATE  elements. 

9.  Each  of  these  five  elements  may  take  three 
distinct  forms,  called  the  first.,  seco7id^  and  tJiird^ 
classes  of  the  elements. 


CHAPTER   L 

(simple  sentences.) 

ELEMENTS  OF  THE  FIRST  CLASS.— WORDS 


SECTION    I. 

PRELIMINARY  REMARKS  AND  DEFINITIONS. 

10;  An  element  of  the  first  class  is  a  single  word^ 
used  as  a  constituent  part  of  a  sentence. 


ANALYSIS   OF    SE2^TENCES.  11 

ll.\  A  word  is  the  sign  of  an  idea. 

(a.y  An  idea  is  a  mental  picture  or  conception  of  a.n  object,  either 
material  or  immaterial,  and  may  be  represented' singly  ;  as,  trcs^ 
river,  horse ;  K)r  as  associated  with  some  otiier  idea  \  as,  tall  tree, 
deep  river,  wild  horse.  In  the  first  examples,  tree,  river,  horse, 
represent  single  ideas  of  the  objects  which  they  name  ;  but  in 
the  second,  the  ideas  represented  by  tall^  deep.,  and  wild,  are  as- 
sociated with  them. 

(6.)    Some  words  are  used  merely  as  signs  of  the   relation  ol 
ideas, (see  14,  b  )  ;  as,  "  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain." 

12.'   Connected    ideas    require    a   corresponding 

connection  of  the  words  which  represent  them  ,*  as 

faithful  man,  house  of  representatives.  *■ 

The  vrords  faithful  and  man  are  connected  so  as  to  show  a 
lelat.ion  between  the  two  ideas  which  tliey  represent.  So  also 
are  house  and  representatives. 

13.  \  In  connecting  words,  we  must  attend  both 
^o  the  mode  and  the  nature  of  their  union.  \  ^ 

14  The  Mode  of  Union.  Words  may  be  unit- 
ed in  two  ways  :>- 

(a.)\By  joining  them  immediately^  that  is,  withou. 
a  connective  ;r- first,  without  change  of  form  ;  as, 
good  food,  summer  residence,  very  quickly  ;  —  second, 
with  the  form  of  one  or  both  the  united  words 
changed  ;  as,  ''  Arabia-7i  horses  ;  "  "  Abraliam-'s 
tent ;  "  '•  Thou  sit-re^-^ ;  "  — 

(b)  ^  By  using  a  connective  to  denote  the  relation 
between  them  ;  as,  "  Horses  from  Arabia  ;  "  "  The 
tent  of  Abraham  ;  "  ''  Thou  art  sitting." 

This  mode  of  union  is  sometimes  called  mediate. 

15.  The  Nature  of  the  Union.  We  natural- 
ly distingnish  objects  by  means  of  some  of  then 
properties  ;   as,  their  color,  —  black,  white,  red,  hluf.  ; 


12  ANALYSIS     OF     SENTENCES. 

their  form,  —  long^  shorty  wide,  deep ;  their  actions. 
—  running,  flying,  sivimming,  craivling ;  their  genus 
or  species,  —  animal,  bird,  Jish,  serpent.  These 
properties  are  called  attributes. 

16.  An  attribute  may  be  united  to  its  object,, — 
(«.)By  assuming  a  union,  or  by  joining  it  without 

an  assertion ;  as,  blue  sky,  rough  sea,  poiso)ious  rep- 
tiles ;  — 

(b.)  By  affirming  a  union,  or  by  joniing  it  with 
n  assertion  ;yas,  ''  The  sky   is  blue  ;^"    ^'  The  sea 

rough;"  "Reptiles  are  poisonous." 

in  either  case,  the  attribute  is  united  to  the  object.  In  the 
former,  the  fact  that  the  property  belongs  to  the  object  is  only 
implied^  conceded,  or  taken  for  graiiicd ;  whereas,  in  the  latter, 
the  same  is  iiffinned,  declared,  or  predicated.  In  the  first  case, 
the  attribute  is  joined  immediately  to  its  object;  in  the  second,  it 
is  joined  to  it,  and  asserted  of  it,  by  a  peculiar  connective  called 
the  copula. 

17.  The  copula  is  some  modification  {is,  are^ 
was,  &c.)  of  the  verb  to  be.  Its  office  is,  to  assert 
an  attribute  of  the  thing  to  which  it  belongs. 

18.  The  distinction  between  assuming  and  pred- 
icating an  attribute,  is  of  great  importance  in  the 
construction  of  language ;  and,  that  the  learner  may 
become  familiar  with  it  at  the  outset,  let  him  attend 
to  the  following  exercise  :  — 

Exercise   1. 

Tell  which  of  the  following  expressions  contain  an 
assumed,  ctnd  which  a  predicated  property  :  — 

Sweet  apples.  Rumiing  'ater.  Ice  is  melting.  Shin- 
'  ■  g  gold      George   is  well.      ^-''ading  flowers      Slurs  ai^e 


ANALYSIS     OF     SENTENCES.  1°-^ 

shining.  Snow  is  falling.  Sour  gra})es.  The  wind  is-, 
blowing.  Fire  is  burning.  John  is  a  carpenter.  Singing 
birds.  Open  doors.  Barren  fields.  Hissing  scr|)ents.  A 
long  journey.     Hope  is  deferred. 

Chonge  each  of  the  above  expressions,  by  prcd' 
icating  the  assumed,  and  assuming  the  predicated 
'properties. 

Model.*  "  Apples  are  sweet ;  "  "  Water  is  running ; " 
"  Molthig  ice." 

Mention  thr&e  or  more  properties  of  each  of  the 
following  objects  :  — 

(jold,  horsesj  books,  iron,  ocean,  whale^,  edifice,  peaches, 
dogs,  man,  king,  moon,  water,  ink,  oil,  lamp,  table,  money, 
pens. 

Unite  them  first  as  assumed  and  then  as  predicaiea 
"properties. 

Model.  Heavy  gold  ;  precious  gold  ;  yelloio  gold ;  po- 
rous gold. 

Model.  Gold  is  heavy ;  gold  is  precious ;  gold  is  yel' 
low  ;  gold  is  porous, 

19.  When  an  attribute  is  predicated  of  an  ob- 
ject, the  united  ideas  constitute  a  thought,  and  the 
form  of  expression  is  called  a  sentence,  (from  the 
Latin  word  sententia,  a  thought.)     Hence, 

20.  A  sentence  is  a  thought  expressed  in  words. 

21.  When  an  attribute  is  assumed  of  an  object, 
(K^  thought  is  expressed,  but  simply  two  ideas  are 
associated.  (11,  a.) 

*  These  exercises  may  be  written  or  recited  orally.  It  is  reo- 
oifunended  that  the  practice  of  writing  lessons  should  be  adoptefl 
as  a  general  rule. 

2 


14  ANALYSIS    or     SENTENCES. 

22.  In  the  formation  of  a  sentence,  there  mustj 
tlicrefore,  be  two  parts, —  that   to  which  the  attri- 
bute belongs,  and  the  attribute  itself;  and  thet-.at 
ter  must  be  affirmed  of  the  former. 

23.  That  to  which  the  attribute  belongs  is  called 
the  subject ;  and  the  attribute  itself,  with  the  word 
which  connects  (17)  it  to  the  subject,  is  called  the 
predicate. 

EXAMPLES. 

Subject.  Predicate. 

Birds  are  singing. 

Bees  are  industrious. 

Georg'i  is  coming. 

Victoria  is  queen. 

24.  It  very  often  happens  that  the  attribute  and 
copula  are  united  in  one  word.> 

EXAMPLES. 

Subject.  Predicate. 

Birds  sing,  (are  singing.) 

George  comes. 

Winds  blow. 

Stars  shine. 

Note.  When  the  predicate  contains  the  copula  and  the  attri- 
bute in  one  word,  it  may  always  be  resolved  into  these  two  parts, 
as,  "  Winds  blow,"  "Winds  are  blowing." 

25.  -  The  uniting  of  words,  to  form  a  sentence, 
is  called  construction  or  synthesis,^ 

26.  'The  resolving  of  a  sentence  into  its  ele- 
ments, or  of  any  complex  element  into  the  parts 
which  compose  it,  is  called  analysis. \ 

27. '  A  simjple  sentence  contains  but  one  propo- 
sition. 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  15 

.28.1  A  complex  sentence  contains   two  or  more 
dissimilar  propositions./ 

29.1   A  compound  sentence  contains  two  or  mon 
similar  propositions- » 


SECTION    II.* 

THE    PROPOSITION.  — PRINCIPAL    ELEMENTS. 

NoTi;.     The    pupil   should  learn   Lesson    I.,   in  the  Appen- 
dix, p.  206,  before  studying  this  section. 

30\  A  proposition  is  the  combination  of  a 
subject  I  (23)  and  predicate,  and  is  either  a  simple 
sentence,  or  part  of  a  complex  or  compound  sentence. 

31.  The  subject  is  that  of  which  something  is 
affirmed. 

32.  The  predicate  is  that  which  is  affirmed. 

33.  The  subject  is  commonly  a  noun  or  pronoun. 

(a.)  Other  parts  of  speech  may  be  used  as  nouns,  and  there- 
fore may  become  the  subject ;  as,  "  Once  is  sutficient ;  "  "  Be- 
hind is  not  before." 

(b.)  Any  word,  used  merely  as  a  word,  may  be  the  subject  j 
as,  "  Is  is  a  verb  j  "  "  Of  is  a  preposition." 

(c.)  A  syllable  or  letter  maj'  be  the  subject ;  as, "  Un  is  a  pre- 
fix:" ".4  is  a  vowel." 

34.  \  The  predicate  consists  of  two  parts,  —  the 
verb,  or  copula ;x  (17,)  and   that  which  is  asserted 

*  Note  to  Teachers.  The  pupil  should  now  commence  the 
Appendix.  The  lessons  of  the  Appendix  are  made  to  corre- 
Bpoiid,  as  nearly  as  possible,  to  the  sections  of  Cmap.  I.  Since 
it  ib  the  chief  object  of  this  arrangement  to  bring  the  principles' 
of  etymology  into  immediate  use,  as  the  pupil  advances,  the 
lessons  of  die  Appendix  should  be  learn ea  only  as  they  pve 
referred  to,  in  the  body  of  the  worK. 


16  ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES- 

by   it,  called  the    attribute;    (15 J   a^,  ''Snow    is 
white. 

It  cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed  upon  the  mind  of  the 
learner,  at  this  stage  of  his  progress,  that  the  copula  is  thai 
which  gives  vitality  to  language.  No  sentence  can  be  formed 
without  it.  Any  number  of  attributes  joined  to  a  subject  with- 
out it  would  not  form  a  proposition.  The  omission  of  this  im- 
portant connective  is  that  which  distinguishes  the  first  attempts 
of  children  to  utter  their  thoughts-,  as,  "Cake  good,"  for 
"  Cake  is  good." 

35.  When  the  two  parts  of  the  predicate  are 
united  in  one  word,  (24,)  that  word  is  always  a 
verb  ;  as,  '^  John  writes. ^^ 

(a.)  Verbs  which  contain  the  copula  and  attribute  are  gome- 
times  called  attributive  verbs,  because  the  attribute  is  included 
in  them. 

(b.)  The  verb  to  be  Is  sometimes  an  attributive  verb ;  it  then 
denotes  existence,  and  is  commonly  preceded  by  there^  and  fol- 
lowed by  its  subject ;  as,  "  There  are  dolphins,"  "  Dolphins 
exist." 

(c.)  Besides  the  verb  fo  be,  there  are  several  others  which 
do  not  complete  the  predicate,  but  take  after  them  some  word  de- 
ncii.mg  a  property  of  the  subject ;  as,  "  Beggars  are  becoming  nu- 
merous ;  "  "  He  is  called  handsovic.''  These  verbs  are  sometimes 
called  copulative  verbs.  They  are  such  as  become,  seem,  appear  ;  i 
and  the  passive  forms  of  deem,  style,  name,  call,  consider,  and  ^- 
others. 

36.  Of  a  subject  we  may  predicate,  — 
{a. )  What  it  does  ;  as,  ''  Birds  fly ;  "  — 

(5.)  What  qualities  it  possesses;    as,   "Sugar  is 
swp.et ;  — 

(c. )  What  it  is ;  as,  "Wheat  is  a  vegetable.^^ 

Of  these  predicates,  («.)  is  always  a  verb  ;  (b.)  an  adjective  ;  and 
:'£,)  a  noun  or  pronoun. 

37.  These    three    parts    of   speech  —  the   nomi, 
including   the  pronoun,)  the   verh^  and   the  adjec 


ANALYSIS    Oi'-     :JEiSTi:NCES.  17 

live— -are  most  commonlv   used  to   form  the  two 
principal  elements  of  the  sentence. 

.NoTK.     Either  of  these  three  parts  of  speech  may  also  be  used 
to  form  the  subordinate  elements  of  a  sentence. 

38.  A  sentence  containing  only  the  two  princi- 
pal elements,  is  said  to  be  unlimited,  and  is  analyzed 
(26)  by  pointing  out  the  subject  and  predicate. 

39.  Unlimited  propositions  should  be  analyzed 
according  to  the  folloAving 

Models  for  Analysis. 


'*  Birds  fly'''' .  is  a  proposition,  because  it  contains  a  sub- 
ject and  predicate.  • 

"  Birds  "...  is  the  subject,  because  it  is  that  of  which  the 
action  (36,  a.)  "fly"  is  affirmed. 

"  Fly "  ....  is  the  predicate,  because  it  is  the  action 
affirmed  of  "  birds." 


"  Snoic  is  white^^  is  a   proposition,  because  it  contaius  a 

subject  and  predicate. 
"  Snow "    ...  is  the  subject,  because  it  is  that  of  whi'^h 

the  quality  (36,  h.)  "white"  is  affirmed. 
"  J5  white ''\  .  is   the   predicate,  because  it  is  the  quality 

affirmed  of  "  snow."     "  Is  "  is  the  verb  or 

copula,  and  "  white  "  is  the  attribute. 


"  Gold  is  a  metal "  is   a   proposition,  because   it  contains 

a  subject  and  predicate. 
**  Gold  "  ....  is  the  subject,  because  it  is  that  of  which  the 

class  ^  (36,  c.)  metal  is  affirmed. 

*  When  the  predicate  is  a  noun,  it  commonly  denotes  to  what 
genus^  s]>ecles^  or  class,  the  subject  be.ongs.  Sometiro*>s  it  de- 
notes ideniltij  ;  as,  "  It  is  James  ;  "    '  I  am  Ae." 

2* 


18  ANALYSIS     OF     SENTENC1-. 

^Is  a  vietaV  .  is  the  predicate,  because  it  denotes  the  class 
which  is  affirmed  of  "  gold."  "  Is  "  is  the 
verb,  and  "  metal,"  the  attribute. 

Exercise  2. 

Analyze  the  following  propositions,  according  to  the 
models  :  — 

Brutus  determined.  George  was  conscious.  Stars 
siiine.  Writers  diiTerj  Trees  are  plants.  Virtue  ennobles. 
Wisdom  directs.  Caesar  conquered.  Kings  reign.  Rich- 
ard was  bold.  Nero  was  cruel.  Socrates  was  a  philoso- 
pher. Ni2;ht  comes.  Exercise  strengthens.  Serptinls 
crawl.  W^inds  blow.  Ea^ies  soar.  Historians  write. 
Boys  play.     Geography,  is  interesting. 


Exercise  3.* 

Predicate  action  (36,  a.)  of  the  following  sub- 
jects :  —    . 

Horses,  water,  eagles,  whales,  quadrupeds^  Columbus, 
Washington,  father,  mother,  insects,  wind,  stars,  children, 
fire,  rain,  leaves,  grays,  time,  robbers,  armies,  moon, 
George,  kings   wasps,  acorns. 

Model.     Horses  run.     Waiter foivs. 

Predicate  quality  (36,  6.)  of  the  following 
nouns :  — 

.Life,  peaches,  ice,  play,  arithmetic,  cloth,  chairs,  money, 
health,  intemperance,  history,  darkness,  morning,  wisdom, 

*  The  pupil  should  write  these  and  similar  examples  upon  a 
slate  or  paper,  drawing  a  line  under  the  illustrative  word,  and 
placing  a  period  (  . )  at  the  end  of  each  proposition.  The  first 
word  in  each  sentence  should  commence  with  a  capital.  The 
o.verc'ses,  atler  boino-  corrected,  .should  \n>  copied  into  a  writing 
boob 


AxNALi'SIS    OF    .SENTENC  ES  1^ 

fruit,  clothing,  ink,  grass,  sky,  cherries,  silver,  fruit,  sol- 
diers, labor,  wool,  Mary. 

Model.     Life  is  short.     Peaches  are  ripe. 

Predicate  the  class  or  species  (36,  c.)  of  the  fol- 
lowing subjects :  ■ — 

Henry,  lemons,  ducks,  lilies,  city,  dogs,  trouts,  lions,  lead, 
sheep,  marbles,  knives,  air,  Peter,  Stephen,  David. 

Model.     Henry  is  a  scholar.     Lemons  are  fruit. 

Let  the  pupil  select  the  subjects  and  predicates 
of  each  sentence  from  a  paragraph  in  his  reading 
lesson,  and  tell  whether  action,  quality,  or  species,  is 
predicated. 

Exercise   4. 

Note.  Before  performing  this  exercise,  learn  Lesson  IL  in 
the  Appendix. 

Analyze  the  following  propositions,  and  tell  which 
subjects  are  proper,  which  are  common,  and  which 
are  collective,  nouns  : — 

Alexander  conquered.  \^  Zeno  was  a  philosopher.  Gray 
was  a  poet.  Ordei*s  were  issued.  Snow  falls.  Temper- 
ance is  a  virtue.  Waves  dash.  Darkness  prevails.  The 
army  marched.  The  school  was  dismissed.  The  council 
was  divided.  Wrestling  is  dangerous.  Lying  is  wicked 
Charles  reads.     Age  overtakes.    Poets  sing.     Winds  blow 

Exercise  5. 

Write  subjects  to  the  following  predicates  :  — 

Proper  Nouns.      Is   able :    was   prevented ;    believes ', 
sings  ;  dances  ;  plays  ;  is  a  merchant ;  is  a  teacher  ;  is  do- 
"lighted  ;  must  come  :  is  honorable  ;  is  faithful. 
Model.     Samuel  is  able. 


20  ANALYSIS    OF     SENTENCES. 

Common  Nouns.  Run ;  is  content ;  is  laudable ;  i& 
pleasant ;  is  consumed ;  can  live ;  write ;  are  trees ;  are 
birds  ;  are  fishes ;  is  desirable ;  is  contemptible. 

Model.     Horses  run. 

Collective  Nouns.  Was  divided ;  was  convened  ;  were 
pleased  ;  was  defeated  ;  was  dismissed. 

Model.     The  school  was  divided. 

Note.     The  pupil  should  review  these  exercises  before  com- 
mencing Section  III.     He  should  be  required  to  point  out  the 
nouns ^   verbs,    and   adjectives^   giving   the    class   of  each    noun 
(See  App.  Les.  II.) 


SECTION  III. 

MODIFICATIONS   OF   THE    SUBJECT. 

40.  Any  change  in  the  application  of  the  sub- 
ject, whether  produced  by  altering  the  word  which 
represents  it,  or  by  adding  other  words  to  it,  is 
called  a  modification  of  the  subject. 

Although  it  is  the  principal  office  of  the  subject  *  to  repre- 
sent some  person,  thing,  or  some  abstract  idea,  as  the  basis  of  an 
affirmation,  yet  the  mechanism  of  language  affords  certain  means 
by  which  its  application  may  be  so  varied  as  to  accommodate  it 
to  the  existing  state  of  the  fact  to  be  predicated. 
The  application  of  the  subject  may  be  varied, — 
1  St.  By  some  change  in  the  word  which  represents  it ;  as,  "  The 
soldier  perished;"  "The  soldiers  perished;"  the  assertion  in 
the  first  sentence  applying  to  one  person,  that  m  the  second  to 
more  than  one ;  — 


*  Subject  is  derived   from   the   Latin  word  subjcctus,  placed 
under,  i  e.,  as  the  foundation  of  the  sentence 


ANALYSIS    OF     Si:NTEI\CES.  2i 

2d.  By  additional  words;  as,  "  Ten  soldiers  peiished ,  "  *•  Brave 
soldiers  perished."  Here  the  subject,  "  soldiers,"  is  restricted  in 
its  application  to  a  certain  number,  (ten,)  or  to  a  certain  class, 
{brave.) 

Note.     As  this  latter  species  of  modification  introduces  a  new 
element  of  the  sentence,  any  further  consideration  of  it  must  1 
deferred  for  the  present. 

41.  When  the  application  of  the  subject  is  va- 
ried by  some  change  or  inflection  in  the  word 
which  represents  it,  the  modification  is  called  an 
accident,  or  an  accidental  pi-operty ;  as,  ''  brother, 
brothers  ;  "  ''  priest,  priestess  ;  "  •'  man,  men." 

42.  The  accidental  properties  of  the  .subject,  or 
of  the  noun,  in  any  relation,  are  numher,  gender^ 
person,  case. 

(a.)  These  properties  belong  to  the  noun  or  pronoun,  either 
as  subject,  (31,)  attribute,  (15,)  or  object,  (117,) 

(b.)  The  accidents  of  the  subject  are  shown,  —  1st.  By  a 
change  of  form;  as,  "  bird,  bird^  ;  "  "  hero,  hero-ine  ;"  —  2d.  By 
a  change  of  the  loord  itself;  as,  "  He  sings,"  (v/hen  I  speak  of  the 
singer;)  "  You  sing,"  (when  i  speak  io  the  singer;)  "/  sing," 
(when  I  am  the  singer;)  —  3d.  By  a  prefix  ;  as, '•' a  /te-goat," 
"  a  coc/t-sparrow." 

(c.)  Some  nouns  admit  of  no  indection  to  denote  a  change  in 
their  application  ;  as,  deer,  sheep,  zorviin. 


1. — Number  of  the  Subject. 

43.  The  subject  may  represent  one  person  oi 
thing,  or  more  than  one,  as  acting;  as,  ''  The  branch 
withered  ;  "  "  The  branches  withered." 

44.  There  are  two  inirnheTs. -f- the  sinsridar  diua 
iiie  plural  ^  The  singular  denotes  but  one  object, 
tlie  i)lural  more  than  one. 


2'i  ANALYSIS    OF    SI  NTENCES. 

•^a.)     fiuinber  is  usually  indicated  by  a  change  of  form. 

Note.  For  the  formation  of  the  plural,  see  App.  Lesson  111., 
which  should  be  studied  before  attending  to  the  following 
exercise. 

Exercise  6. 

Analyze  the  following  examples,  giving  the  numr 
hf  r  and  class  of  each  noun :  — 

Columbus  sailed.  Stars  shine.  James  decreed.  Corn- 
wallis  surrendered.  Candia  is  an  island.  Socrates  was 
poisoned.  Lions  roar.  Grapes  fall.  Trees  decay, 
Churches  stand.  Foxes  are  cunning.  Weeds  overrun 
Benjamin  was  seen.  Silver  shines.  Pencils  are  used 
Washington  was  president.  Kings  are  rulers.  Eggs  are 
broken.     Vinegar  is  sour. 

Write  predicates  to  the  plurals  of  the  following 
nouns : — 

Star,  son,  pipe,  monarch,  church,  hero,  fife,  ox,  cargo, 
ship,  man,  child,  lily,  wolf,  wife,  folio,  muff,  negro,  sheep, 
mystery,  vermin,  lady,  turkey,  chief,  hoof,  mouse,  goose, 
fly,  box,  day,  duty. 

Model.     Stars  sJiiiie.     Sons  obey. 

II. — Gender  of  the  Subject 

45.  All  animals  of  the  same  species  are  either 
male  or  female.  From  this  distinction  arises  the 
grammatical  accident  gender. 

46.  Most  nomis  denoting  the  different  relations 
among  men,  and  those  of  the  most  common  and 
useful  animals,  also  indicate  their  sex  :  as,  father, 
mother  ;  ujiclc,  aunt ;  son,  daughter ;  ram,  ewe  ;  cock 
hen. 


ANALYSIS    OF     SENTENCES.  23 

47.  Biit^  to  those  animals  which  are  less  usefiilj 
or  are  less  obserred  by  man,  but  one  name  is  given 
for  the  male  and  female ;  as,  sparrow^  mouse,  pigeon. 

(a.)  In  such  cases,  the  sex  is  usually  determined  by  a  prefix  ; 
a^,  eock-sparrow,  he-mouse. 

(b.)  Some  nouns  denoting  the  mutual  relations  among  men 
do  not  indicate  sex  ;  as,  parent^  teacher j  child. 

48.  Inanimate  objects  are  incapable  of  any  such 
distinction  as  sex ;  yet  the  term  gender,  as  a  gram- 
matical distinction,  is  applied  to  nouns  denotmg 
such  objects. 

49.  There  are,  therefore,  three  distinctions  called 
genders, — the  masculine,  the  feminine,  and  the  neuter. 

(a.)  Gender  is  indicated  either  by  the  word  it.';elf,  by  a  change 
in  the  word,  or  by  a.  prefix  or  suffix. 

Note.  The  pupil  should  now  study  Lesson  IV.  in  the  Ap- 
pendix. ~ 

Exercise  7. 

Write  subjects  to  the  following  predicates  :  — 

Masculine  Gender.  Conquered ;  is  wise  ;  was  detested  , 
IS  a  blacksmith  ;  is  discreet ;  are  confiding  ;  are  discharged  ; 
is  lame  ;  are  emigrating ;  is  benevolent ;  is  grateful ;  will 
devour ;  gnaw  ;  will  fight ;  complain ;  eat. 

Feminine  Gender.  Is  brooding ;  lowed ;  is  playing  ; 
sings  ;  is  cheerf'il ;  rodt  \  is  a  teacher  ;  is  practising ;  can 
dance ;  was  injured ;  are  anxious ;  are  faithful ;  are 
chirping ;  are  attentive. 

Neuter  Gender.  Roll ;  grow  ;  is  solid  ;  is  deceptive  ; 
^lows  ;  shines  ;  is  falling  ;  is  a  vegetable. 

Models,.    Alexander  conquerf  5.     7^ ^  ^^e^i  is  brooding 
Stones  roll. 


24  ANAJ^ysi?   or       :  'TJ::NCi-:s, 


Analyze  what  you  have  ivriitcit,  telling  the  nuvibei 
and  gender  of  each  noun. 

Ill — Person  oi'  tlie  Subject. 

50.  The  person  of  the  subject  is  that  property 
which  shows  its  relati(Mi  to  tiie  speaker. 

51.  The  speaker  may  sustain  one  cf  three 
relations  to  the  subject  ;  he  may  be  himself  the 
subject,  he  may  speak  to  the  subject,  or  he  may 
speak  of  the  subject.  These  relations  are  denom- 
inated the  first,  second,  and  third  persons  respec- 
tively ;  as,  •'  /write  ;  "  ''  You  write  ;  "  "  He  writes." 

(a.)  These  relations  are  indicated  by  the  word  employed  ;  an, 
/,  thou,  he.  Hence  any  change  in  the  relation  is  indicated  by  a 
change  in  the  word  ;  as,  "i  write,"  "  You  write." 

52.  To  denote  these  three  relations,  a  peculiar 
class  of  words  is  used,  called  personal  j)?'onouns. 

(a.)  Tliese  pronouns  are  not  used  simply  to  avoid  repetition. 
The  subject  in  the  first  and  second  persons  must  always  be  a  pro- 
noun. A  noun  cannot  be  employed.  One  would  not  be  ander- 
.stood  to  speak  of  himself,  if  'u-  should  say,  "  Henry  wrote  : '  u«? 
must  say,  "  I  wrote."  We  should  say,  for  the  second  person, 
'*You  read,"  and  not  "Alexander  reads."  But  in  the  third 
person,  the  name  of  the  subject  may  be  used,  as,  "  Henry  wrote," 
a.nd.  to  avoid  repetition,  "  He  wrote." 

(p.)  These  pronouns  are  called  personal.,  because  they  are 
used  to  indicate  the  grammatical  accident /jerson.  They  show 
the  relation  of  the  subject  to  the  spealcer. 

(c.)    These  pronouns  are  sometimes  called  substantive,  because 
they   may  take  the   place  of  the   noun  in  any   of  its   relations  ; 
"  \  liereas  the  relative  pronoun  can  never  become  the  subject  of  a 
erUence,  though  it  may  be  the  subject  of  a  dependent  propo.'^ition 
flence  the   relative  pronoun  cannot  be   considered  in   ihis  con 
aootion 


ANALYSIS     OF     SENTENCES.  26 

53.  The  personal  pronouns  which  may  repre- 
sent the  subject  are,  — 

First  Person^  .  I, .  .  singular. 

We,  plural. 
Second  Person,  Thou,  (You,)  singular. 

Ye,  You,  .  .  .  plural. 
Third  Person, .  masculine,  He,  \ 

feminine, .  She,  >  singular,    Tuey, plural 

neuter,   .  .  It,     ^ 

Note.     Study  Lesson  V.  in  Appendix,  and  then  perform  tiit? 
following  exercises :  — 

Exercise  8. 

Analyze  the  following  projjositions,  and  give  the 
person  of  each  subject :  — 

I  am  well.  You  sit.  We  have  come.  He  is  delirious. 
Thou  art  the  man.  Wisdom  is  profilcible.  Paul  preached. 
She  is  writing.  U  is  true.  They  labor.  Ye  resist 
Boys  play.     Larks  sing.     Insects  buzz. 

Write  subjects  in  the  first,  second,  and  third 
persons  respectively,  to  each  of  the  following  predi^ 
cates,  making  such  changes  i?i  them  as  may  he 
necessary :  — 

Is  late  ;  am  exhausted  ;  is  plundering  ;  is  a  pupil ;  might 
he  educated ;  is  afTable ;  art  content ;  play  ;    sing  ;  lead  ; 
is  a  mathematician ;  will  be  satisfied  ;  can  find  ;  did  do 
fend  ;  does  reply. 

jModel.     We  are  late.     Thou  art  late.     Re  is  late. 

IV. —  Case  of  the  Subject. 

54.  Case  denotes  the  relation  of  a  noun  or  pro- 
•loun  to  other  words. 

3 


26  ANALYSTS   OF    SENTENCES. 

55.  There  are  three  cases,  —  the  nominative,  p09- 
sessive,  and  objective. 

56.  The  case  of  the  subject  denotes  its  relation  to 
the  predicate,  and  is  always  nominative ;  hence  the 
following  rule :  — 

KuLE  I.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the 
suhject  of  a  proposition  must  be  in  the  nomi- 
native case. 

Note.  The  rules  for  construction  will  be  given  whenever  the 
principles  on  which  they  are  founded  are  developed.  They 
should  be  strictly  observed  in  writing  sentences,  and  applied  in 
parsing. 

57.  Parsing  consists  in  naming  a  part  of  speech, 
giving  its  modifications,  relation,  agreement  or  de- 
pendence, and  the  rule  for  its  construction.  Analy- 
sis consists  in  pointing  out  the  words  or  groups  of 
words  which  constitute  the  elements  (8)  of  a  sen- 
tence.    Analysis  should  precede  parsing. 

Note.     Study  Lesson  VI.  in  the  Appendix. 

Models  for  Analysis  and  Parsing. 

^     George  writes. 

It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  contains  but  one 

proposition. 
George .  .  is  the  subject,  because  it  is  that  of  which  the 

action  "  writes  "  is  affirmed. 
Wi'ites  .  .  is  the  predicate,  because  it  is  the  action  affirmed 

of  "  George." 
George  .  .  is  a  proper  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular 
number^  masculine  gender,  nominative  case,  and 
is   the    subject   of    the   proposition,    "George 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  27 

writes  ; "  according  to  Rule  I.,  '•  A  noun  or  pro- 
noun used  as  tlie  subject  of  a  proposition  must 
be  in  the  nominative  case." 

3  a^  is  active. 

It  »  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  contains  but  one 

proposition. 
He is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  sin- 
gular  number,   masculine   gender,    nominative 
case,  and  is  the  subject  of  the  proposition,  "  He 
is  active  ;  "  according  to  Rule  I. 

Exercise   9. 

Analyze  the  following  propositions ^  and  parse  the 
subjects:  — 

I  am  prepared.  Jesus  wept.  Milo  lifted.  Money 
r  mpted.  Rain  descended.  Abraham  was  faithful.  Job 
A^os  patient.  Comets  appear.  Planeis  revolve.  Solomon 
pra3'ed.  They  will  quarrel,  lie  is  ruined.  David  was 
King,  We  must  study.  England  was  invaded.  William 
conquered.     Harold  was  defeated.     Exercise  strengthens. 

Stealing  is  base.  Thou  art  seated.  She  is  coming. 
It  rains.  It  snows.  It  lightens.  You  can  sing.  He  is 
detestable.     Fishes  swim. 

Write  subjects  to  the  following  predicates  :  — 

Is  a  monster ;  are  coming ;  is  burning ;  neigh ;  art  wise  ; 
were  handled ;  is  numbered  ;  is  a  giant ;  are  reptiles  ;  are 
vegetables  ;  is  a  beverage ;  is  impossible  ;  will  be  defeat- 
ed ;  paints  ;  draws  ;  is  a  conductor ;  dances. 

Write  ten  entire  sentences  of  your  oivji^  having  only 
a  suited  and  predicate  ;  select  also  the  subjects  and 
predicates  from  ten  sentences  in  your  Reading  Lesson. 


dS  ANALYSIS     OF     SENTENCEJi. 

!  SECTION    IV. 

MODIFICATIONS    OF   THE   PREDICATE 

58.  Any  change  wliich  varies  the  application 
or  meaning  of  the  predicate,  whether  produced  by 
altering  either  of  the  words  (copula  or  attribute) 
which  represent  it,  or  by  adding  other  words  to  it, 
is  called  a  modification  of  the  predicate. 

(a.)  As  it  is  the  chief  office  of  the  subject  to  represent  some 
person  or  thing  as  the  basis  of  an  affirmation,  so  it  is  the  princi- 
pal office  of  the  predicate  *  to  denote  what  is  affirmed.  But,  like 
the  subject,  it  can  be  made,  by  certain  changes,  to  represent 
other  properties  not  essential  to  it  as  predicate. 

(ft.)  These  clianges  are  produced  either  by  varying  the  form 
of  the  attribute  (34)  or  copula,  or  by  adding  other  words  to  ona 
or  both  of  them. 

59.  When  the  modification  takes  place  by  unit- 
mg  two  verbal  forms,  or  by  altering  the  form  either 
of  the  copula  or  attribute,  (41,)  it  is  called  an  acci- 
dent or  an  accidental  projjerty  of  the  predicate  ;  and 
the  variation  is  called  an  inflection. 

(a.)  The  verbs  which  unite  with  others  to  form  the  various 
modifications  of  the  predicate,  are  called  auxiliaries. 

(ft.)    When  the  predicate  is  modified  by  the  addition  of  any 
other  word  than  an  auxiliary  verb,  a  new  element  of  the  sentence 
is  introduced  ;  as,  "  Birds  fly  swiftly  ;  "  "  Edmund  sold  oranges^' 
(40,  note.) 

l.  —  M0DIFICAT10N$^    OF    THE     PREDICATE-NOMI- 
NATIVE. 

60.  When  the  attribute  of  the  predicate  (34)  is  a 
aoun  or  pronoun,  it  may  be  varied,  like  the  subject 

•  Predicatey  from  the  Latin  word  pre<licar(\  to  affirm,  declare. 


ANALYSIS     OK     SCNTENCES.  29 

CO  denote  number ,  gender,  ycrson,  and  cai],  ^See 
Section  III.)  The  following  is  the  rule  for  the 
construction  of  the  predicate-nominati\re :  -  - 

Rule  11.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  v//th  the 
copula  to  form  the  pxdicate,  must  be  *n  the 
nominative  case. 

(a.)  When  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  tlius  used,  it  is  calL"*  the 
prfdicatc-nominativey  to  distinguish  it  from  the  subje(.t-uoni\na. 
live.  The  predicate-nominative  always  denotes  the  saiKe  person 
or  thing  as  the  subject,  and  must  agree  with  it  in  cane.  vVhen 
the  predicate-nominative  denotes  a  person,  it  usually  a^.ees  with 
the  subject  in  gender,  number,  and  cnse. 

(6.)  By  a  peculiar  idiom  of  the  English  language,  the  neuter 
pronoun  it,  as  subject,  may  represent  a  noun  or  pronoun  as 
predicate  of  any  number,  person,  or  gender  ;  as,  "  It  is  I ;  "  "  It  is 
they ;  "  "  It  is  James ;  "  "  U  is  she." 

(c.)     This  rule  applies  when  such  verbs  are  used  as  are  men 
tioned  in  35,  (c.) 

Models  for  parsing  the  Predicate-Nominative 

Gold  is  a  metal. 

(See  Model  for  Analysis,  p.  17.) 

Metal  is  a  common  noun,  of  tlie  third  person,  singular 
number,  neuter  gender,  nominative  case,  and  with 
"  is''  fonns  the  predicate  of  the  proposition,  "  Gold 
is  a  metal;"  according  to  Rule  IL,  "A  noun  or 
pronoun  used  with  the  copula  to  form  the  predi- 
cate, must  be  in  the  nominative  case.'' 

He  is  called  a  hero. 

ilei'o    is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  pereon,  singular  num- 
ber, masc.   gender,  nomiiuuive  case,  and, -with  "  is 
called."  forms  the  predicate  of  the  proposition,  "  He 
3* 


HO  ANALTHIS    OF    SENTENCES. 

is  called  a  hero ; "  according  to  Rule  II.,"  A  noun  or  pro- 
noun used  with  the  copula  to  form  the  predicate,  must  be 
in  the  nominative  case  " 

Note.  Ooserve  tnat  this  proposition  has  two  attributes,  called 
and  heroy  both  of  which,  with  is,  constitute  the  predicate.  (See 
35,  c) 

Exercise   10. 

Analyze  the  following  propositions^  parsing  the 
subjects  and  attributes  :  — 

Demosthenes  was  an  orator.  1  am  he.  It  is  I.  It  is 
Abraham.  Horses  are  animals.  He  was  considered  a 
genius.  She  is  a  poetess.  Madison  v/as  elected  presi- 
dent. We  are  puj)ils.  He  is  deemed  a  workman.  They 
have  become  teachers.  IJorneo  is  an  island.  Algebra  is 
a  science.  Air  is  a  fluid.  Water  is  a  liquid.  Oxygen  is 
a  gas.  He  appeared  as  *  agent.  He  is  regarded  as  a 
historian. 

Write  a  subject  and  copula  to  each  of  the  following 
nouns  and  jnonouns  tal^en  as  attributes  :  — 

You,  soldier,  treatise,  I,  she,  king,  trees,  vegetables, 
Andrew,  Benjamin,  animals,  virtue,  book,  they,  we,  ser- 
pent, fish,  insect,  reptile,  (lower,  {)!ant,  mineral,  bay,  har- 
bor, planet,  comet. 

Model.     //,  is  you.     He  was  a  soldier. 

IL-^ TdODIFlCATIONS   OF  THE    PREDICATE-ADJEC 

TI  VE. 

61.  When  the  attribute  of  the  predicate  is  an 
adjective,  it  may  be  varied  to  indicate,  — 

*   Sometimes  as,  denoting  ofice,  capacity,  or  situation,  is  used 
to  connect  a  property  (either   predicated  or  assumed)   with  the 
word  to  which  it  belongs  ;  as,  "  The  -noon  as  satelhte  attends;" 
"  He  was  regarded  as  innocent.* 


ANALYSIS    OF     SENTENCES.  Ol 

[a.)  That  the  subject  possesses  the  quahty  de- 
noted by  the  adjective  in  a  higher  or  lower  degree 
than  some  other  person  or  thing  with  which  it  is 
compared;  as,  "Charity  is  greater  than  hope," 
•* Charles  is  smaller  than  James;"  — 

(5.)  That  the  subject  possesses  the  quality  de- 
noted by  the  adjective  in  the  highest  or  lowest 
degree,  when  considered  in  reference  to  all  other 
objects  with  which  it  is  compared ;  as,  "  The 
greatest  of  these  [three]  is  charity;" 

Note.  Instead  of  being  compared  with  another  person  or 
thing,  the  subject  may  be  compared  with  itself,  since  it  may,  at 
different  times,  or  under  different  circumstances,  possess  a  quahty 
in  different  degrees  ;  as,  '■'■  His  health  is  better  to-day  than  it  wa? 
yesterday." 

62.  The  variation  of  the  adjective  to  show  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  quality,  is  called  comparison. 

(a.)  Comparison  is  indicated,  —  1st.  By  changing  the /orrn  of 
the  adjective;  a.s,  tcise,  wiseT,,  icisest]  —  2d.  By  changing  the 
word;  as,  bad^  worsts  worst;  —  3d.  By  addmg  other  words;  as, 
industrious,  more  industrious,  most  industrious. 

(b.)  As  comparison  always  requires  an  additional  element  of 
the  sentence  to  complete  the  sense,  the  subject  cannot  be  fully 
discussed  in  this  connection. 

Note.  For  the  formatior  of  the  comparative  degree,  see  Ap- 
pendix, Lesson  VII. 

63.  The  degrees  of  comparison  are,  the  positive, 
the  cuynparative,  and  the  superlative. 

(a.)  Comparison  applies  to  the  adjective, either  as  a  predicated 
or  an  assumed  property,  (16.) 

(6.)  When  the  adjective  is  used  to  for;n  the  predicate,  it  is 
called  the  predicate-adjective^  to  distinguish  it  from  The  adjective 
when  used  as  a  modifier. 


32  ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES. 

64.    The  predicate-adjective  should  be  parsed  by 
the  following  rule  :  — 

Rule  III.     An  adjective  used  with  the  cop- 
tsla  to  form  the  predicate ^  belongs  to  the  subject. 

( a.)  In  other  languages,  the  relation   of  the  adjective  to  the 
siib]ect  is  indicated  by  an  agreement  in  number^  gender   and  case.. 

Models  fok  parsing  the  Predicate-Adjective. 

He  is  heiievolent. 

(Analyze  according  to  the  models,  Sect.  II.) 

Benevolent  is  an  adjective,  of  the  positive  degree,  (com- 
pared, benevolent.^  more  benevolent,  most  be- 
nevolent,) and  forms  with  "  is  "  the  predicate  of 
the  proposition,  "  He  is  benevolent."  It  be- 
longs to  "  /ie,"  according  to  Rule  III.,  "  An 
adjective  used  with  the  copula  to  form  the  pred- 
icate, belongs  to  the  subject." 

Richard  is  older  [than  John.]  * 

Older  ...  is  an  adjective,  of  the  comparative  degree, 
(compared,  old,  older,  oldest,)  and  forms  with 
"  is  "  the  predicate  of  the  proposition,  "  Rich- 
ard is  older."  It  belongs  to  the  subject, 
according  to  Rule  III. 

Achilles  was  the  bravest  [of  the  Greel{:s.] 

Bravest  .  .  is  an  adjective,  of  the  superlative  degree, 
(compared,  brave,  braver,  bravest^)  and  forms 
with  "  was  "  the  predicate  of  the  proposition, 
"Achilles  was,"  &c.  It  belongs  to  "Achil- 
les," according  to  Rule  III. 

*  The  words  in  the  brackets  should  be  omitted  in  analyzing,  aa 
the  pupil  is  not  prepared  to  explain  them,  (62,  b.) 


analysis   of   sentencea.  33 

Exercise   11. 

Analyze  (he  following  examples j  and  yarse  ih( 
idjectives :  — 

Washington  was  wise.  The  country  is  free.  The  fur* 
niture  is  old.  The  child  is  weak.  The  wind  js  coliJ. 
The  ice  is  thin.  The  water  is  deep.  The  soil  is  ricli. 
The  boards  are  rouiz;h.  The  general  is  brave.  Edward 
is  sick.  Life  is  short.  The  streets  are  wide.  The 
dog  is  faithful.  George  is  industrious.  The  constable 
is  active.  Gold  is  precious.  Diamonds  are  combustible, 
The  sun  is  brilliant.     The  davs  are  long. 

Write  predicate-adjectives  to  complete  the  follow^ 
ing  :  — 

Jonas  is.  The  moon  is.  The  ocean  is.  Truth  is.  He 
IS.  Washington  was.  Arnold  was.  Flowers  are.  I  am. 
Ice  is.     Hoses  are. 

^loDEL.     Jonas  is  sick. 

W  ite  a  subject  and  copula  to  each  of  the  following 
adje-  lives  used  as  predicates ':  — 

Kcindsome,  powerful,  awful,  warm,  mild,  gentle,  able, 
sad,  mournful,  judicious,  wise,  discreet,  unsuccessful,  kind. 

Model.      The  horses  are  handsome. 
Write  ten  sentences  of  your  own,  using  a  predicate^ 
adjective. 

UL  — MODIFICATIONS    OF    THE     VERB. 

65.  The  verb  (except  ^'  to  be  ")  includes  both  the 
co})ula  and  attribute,  whether  separate,  as,  "  Flowers 
are  blooming,^^  or  combined,  as,  "Flowers  bloom.'' 

(a.)  The  verbal  attribute,  when  separated  from  the  copula,  is  a 
kind  of  adjective.      It   partakes   of  the    properties   both    of  the 


34  *  ANALYSIS     OF     SENTENCES. 

adjective  and  verb,  and  is  hence  called  xx  participle.  Like  the  ao 
^  jeccive,  it  denotes  some  property  of  a  noun.  It  may  represent 
either  a,n  assumed  ox  predicated  property  ;  as,  "  Horses  running ;  " 
*' Horses  are  running.''  It  relates  to  the  noun  in  the  same  man« 
ner  as  the  adjective,  (64.)  But,  on  the  other  hand,  unlike  the 
adjective,  it  expresses  action ;  it  may  be  blended  with  the  copula, 
and  form  the  predicate,  (24 ;)  it  may,  like  the  verb,  represent  the 
different  conditions  of  the  action,  and  may  receive  the  same  limL 
tations  by  additional  words  as  the  verb  does. 

( b.)  The  copula  and  participle,  when  distinct,  constitute  a  pe- 
culiar form  of  the  verb,  called  tlie  progressive  fonn. 

66.  Yerbs  are  divided  into  regular  and  irregular, 
Hransitive  and  intransitive.     The  first  distinction  has 

reference  to  their  form ;  the  second,  to  their,  use. 

Note.  For  further  particulars  respecting  the  classes  of  verbs, 
see  Appendix,  Lesson  VIII. 

67.  The  accidents  of  the  verb  are  number,  jjer- 
son,  mode,  and  tense.  They  show  a  relation  both 
to  the  subject  and  the  speaker. 

Number  and  Person  of  the  Verb. 

68.  The  number  and  person  of  the  verb  are 
properties  which  show  its  agreement  with  the  sub- 
ject. Like  the  subject,  the  verb  has  two  numbers 
and  three  persons. 

(«.)  Number  and  person  are  not  so  distinctly  marked  in  Eng- 
lish as  in  most  other  languages. 

(6.)  Both  number  and  person,  so  far  as  shown  at  all  by  the 
Terb  itself,  are  indicated  by  a  change  of  forrn. 

EXAMPLES. 

Singular.  Plural. 

First  Person,       lam;  First  Person,       We  are; 

Second  Person,  Thou  ar't ;         Second  Person,  You  arc  j 
Third  Person,     He  is.  Tliird  Person,     Tiiey  are. 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  35 

69.  The  following  is  the.cule  for  the  construc- 
tion of  the  verb  :  — 

Rule  IV.  The  verb  must  agree  with  its 
subject  in  number  and  person. 

(fl.)  This  rule  applies  to  the  copula  when  distinct  from  the 
attribute,  or  to  the  verb  when  both  are  united  ;  as,  "  Thou  art 
sleeping;  "  "  Thou  sleepc^f." 

Note.  Observe  tliat  the  form  art  indicates  the  number  and 
person,  precisel}'  in  tlie  same  way  as  does  the  termination  est. 

(b.)  To  this  rule  there  properly  is  no  exception.  There  is, 
however,  an  apparent  exception  in  the  case  of  collective  nouns, 
which,  in  the  singular  number,  may  take  a  verb  in  the  plural. 
If,  in  using  such  a  noun,  reference  is  had  to  the  individuals  form- 
ing  the  collection,  the  verb  should  always  be  plural ;  otherwise  it 
should  be  singular. 

Note.     Study  Lesson  IX.,  in  the  Appendix. 

Exercise   12. 

Analyze  the  foUowing  sentences^  giving  (he  number 
and  person  of  each  verb  :  — 

I  write.  Hg  speaks.  We  say.  They  are  riding.  Slie 
is  painting.  You  intimate.  Thou  thinkest.  Gibbon  nar« 
rated.  Francis  drives.  Plants  thrive.  Trees  grow. 
Friends  advise.  Teachei*s  direct.  It  rains.  They  run. 
Stars   shine. 

Write  each  of  these  sentences^  separating  the  copula 
from  the  attribute  :  — 

Model.     I  ain  writing. 

Write  subjects  to  the  foUowing  verbs,  talcing  care 
to  use  the  right  number  and  person  :  — 

Sleeps,  consent,  chatters,  walkest,  are  studying,  com- 
mand,  preach,  wliistle,  delays,  abides,  live,  beseech,  bo 


36  AiVALYSIS     OF     SKNTEr^CKS. 

tray,  consigoast,  disligure,  is  contriving,  v/as  fmisliing,  art. 
spinning,  mayst  stop,  does  deliberate,  wilt  stay. 
Model.     Susan  sleeps.    ^  We  consent. 

Correct  the  folloicing  sentences  :  — 

James   think.     I    readest.      We   speaks.     You    writes. 
Henry  recitest.     She  complain.     They  viewedst.     Thou 
is    learning.      We   art   ready.      Some   says.      He   lead. 
!jeorge  art  weepmg. 
Model.     James  thinks.     James  think  is  incorrect,  be- 
cause think   does  not  asiree  with  James   in  number, 
according  to  Rule  IV. 

Mode  of  tlie  Verb. 

70.  Mode  shows  the  manner  in  which  the  attri- 
bute is  asserted  of  the  subject. 

(a.)  Mode  relates  to  the  manner  of  the  assertion^  not  to  thai 
of  the  thing  asserted,  and  therefore  affects  tlie  copula  rather  than 
tlie  attribute.  Hence,  when  a  verb  contains  the  copula  and  attri- 
bute united,  mode  should  be  regarded  as  affecting  the  assertion^ 
and  not  the  action.  The  manner  of  the  action  is  deter 
rained  by  additional  words,  as  will  be  shown  in  a  subsequen'. 
section. 

(h.)  Assert^  in  tliis  connection,  is  used  in  opposition  to  assume^ 
(see  16,  a.)  It  applies  to  all  cases  in  which  an  attribute  is  con- 
nected with  a  subject  by  the  copula,  whatever  may  be  the  particu- 
lar  mode  of  connection. 

71.  An  attribute  may  be  connected  with  the 
subject  so  as  to  show  that  it  actually  exists  as  a 
property  of  the  subject ;  as,  ''James  is  rich." 

(a.)  When  a  property  does  not  actually  exist  in  the  subject,  its 
absence  is  declared  in  a  similar  manner  ;  as,  "  James  is  not  rich." 

(6.)  A  property  may  exist  in  the  subject,  and  the  speaker  may 
be  ignorant  of  it.  He  can  then  inquire  after  its  existence  as 
something  actual ;  as.  "  Is  James  rich  ?  " 


\ 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES. 


37 


Note.  Actuality  is  the  idea  which  is  common  to  these  three 
ea^es. 

72.  An   attribute  may  be   connected  with  the 
subject,  so  as  to  show  not  that  it  really  exists  in  it, 
but    that    such    an    existence    is  possible,  probable, 
necessary,  or  obligator}/  ;  as,  "  James  may  be  richj  - 
can  be  rich,  —  must  be  rich.'''' 

(a.)  Here,  again,  the  possibility  or  necessity  may  be  denied  or 
inquired  for ;  as,  "  James  cannot,  must  not,  may  not  be  rich  ;  " 
"  Can,  may,  or  must  James  be  rich  .-'  " 

Note.  The  idea  of  possibility,  liberty,  power,  necessity,  or  oh- 
ligation,  is  the  pecuHarity  of  these  forms  of  the  verb. 

73.  An  attribute  may  be  connected  with  the 
subject  so  as  to  show,  not  actuality  or  possibility, 
simply,  but  a  mere  conception  of  something  doubtful 
or  conditional;  as,  ''should  virtue  become  vice;" 
"  if  it  rains  ;  "  "  were  he  wrong." 

Note.     Conditionality  is  the  peculiarity  of  this  form. 

74.  An  attribute  may  be  connected  with  the 
subject  so  as  to  show  that  its  existence  as  a  prop- 
erty of  the  subject  is  commanded,  exhorted,  or  e?J- 
treated  ;  as,  "  Be  rich  ;  "  "  Be  [thou]  kind  ; " 
''Go;"   "Sit." 

Note.     This  form  of  the  verb  represents  our  desires. 

75.  An  attribute  may  be  stated  abstractly,  hav- 
ing no  connection  with  a  subject ;  as,  ^'  to  be 
rich  ;  "  "  to  write  ;  "  "being  rich  ;  "  "  writing." 

76.  These  various  forms  of  the  verb  are  classi- 
fied by  grammarians  under  five  divisions,  called 
m,odes ;  — 

The    indicative,  which    represents    what    is   ac- 
tual; — 

4 


/ 


88  ANALYSIS    OF     SENTENCES. 

l^he  potential,  which   represents  what  mayj  can 

or  must  be  ;  — 
The  subjunctive,  which  represents  ^vhat  is  condU 

tional ;  — 
The    imperativey    which    commands,    exhorts,    en 

treats ;  — 
The  infinitive,  which  represents  an  attrihute  ah- 

stractly. 
77.    The  infinitive  and  participle  are  fo'nis   o! 
the  verb,  but  not  strictly  7tiodes.     (See  70.) 

■■;l^   (a.)    The  infinitive    may  be  regarded  as  a    verbal  noun^  and 

the  participles  as  verbal  adjectives.     (For  the  classes   and  forms 

of  the  participle,  see  Appendix.) 

(i.)    Mode  is  indicated  chiefly  by  auxiliary  verbs,  (59,  a.) 
(c.)    The  subjunctive  and  infinitive  modes    are  used  only   as 

subordinate   parts   of  a  sentence,  and   cannot,  therefore,  be  dis 

cussed  here.. 

Note.     Studj'  Lesson  X.,  in  the  Appendix. 

Exercise   13. 

Analyze  the  following  propositions,  giving  the 
mode  of  each  verb.  Give  also  the  number  and  person^ 
according  to  Rule  IV. 

The  scales  were  turned.,  Charles  was  abandoned.  The 
coimt  was  seized.  We  can  dance.  You  may  study.  He 
IS  silent.  Arthur  was  murdered.  Stop.  Stand  still.  Be 
careful.  Be  attentive.  James  was  anxious.  Truth  is 
mighty.  Wisdom  exalts.  Clouds  overhang.  Thunde> 
T'oars.  The  lightning  is  vivid.  Be  wise.  Awake.  He 
may  go.  Study.  You  mus'i  write.  Be  gone.  /VrnoW 
vas  a  traitor,  Esau  was  hated.  It  ma3/  ram.  The  clock 
strikes.     The  wind  may  rise.     The  storm  may  abate. 


ANALYSIS    OF     SENTENCES.  39 

Write  predicates  to  the  following  suhjtcis  :  — 

Indicative  Mode.  Besiegers,  Swedes,  Frentih,  Bona- 
parte,  procession,  ladies,  enemy,  skill,  emperor,  he,  it,  gov- 
ernment, conventions,  war. 

Model.     The  besiegers  were  repulsed. 

Potential  Mode.  Fleet,  column,  congress,  boys,  sugar, 
.ovs,  books,  slaves,  ink,  virtue,  temperance,  education, 
duty,  mischief. 

Model.  The  fleet  may  he  overtaken.  A  column  must 
he  erected. 

Corwert  the  following  infinitives  into  the  imperative 
mode : — 

To  write  ;  to  study ;  to  play ;  to  sing ;  to  reud  ;  to  be- 
gin ;  to  delay ;  to  be  active ;  to  be  true  ;  to  labor ;  to 
travel ;  to  be  acquitted  ;  to  indicate ;  to  be  happy ;  to 
leave  ;  to  wash  ;  to  strike  ;  to  love. 

Model.     Write,  or  Write  thou. 

Note.  The  subject  comes  after  the  verb  in  the  imperative 
mode,  and  is  usually  omitted. 

Change  the  modes  in  your  written  examples,  —  the 
indicative  to  the  potential,  the  potential  to  the  indica- 
tive, and  so  on. 

Model.  The  besiegers  were  repulsed.  The  besiegers 
might  he  repulsed.     Be  ye  repulsed.     To  he  repulsed. 

Tense  of  the  Verb. 

7S.  Tense  denotes  the  time  of  an  action  or 
event.     It  may  be  either  past,  present,   or  future, 

(a.)    Since  time,  considered  absolutely,  is  an  unbroken  suco© 
sion  ot  instants,  we   can  speak  of  an  event  as  past^  ■present^ 


40 


ANALYSIS    JF    SENTENCES. 


future^  cnly  m  relation  to  some  point  to  which  all  others  s.»  v ) 
refer.  The  point  assumed  for  this  purpose  is  the  time  when  the 
action  or  eveLt  is  mentioned,  that  is,  spoken  or  written^  and  is 
called  the  time  of  the  speaker ;  as,  "  Columbus  sailed ;  (1846 
being  the  time  of  the  speaker^  and  1492  being  the  time  of  the 
event.) 

( b.)  There  are,  therefore,  two  points  of  time  to  be  considered 
in  the  simplest  form  of  the  verb,  —  the  time  of  the  speaker,  and 
the  time  of  the  event.  The  time  of  the  event  may  be  simultane' 
ous  with  that  of  the  speaker;  as,  "  Edward  writes."  It  is  then 
called  the  present.  The  time  of  the  event  may  be  antecedent  to 
that  of  the  speaker  ;  as,  "  Edward  wrote."  It  is  then  called  the 
ast.  The  time  of  the  event  may  be  subsequent  to  the  time  of  the 
speaker  ;  as,  "  Edward  will  write."     It  is  then  called  the  future. 

79.  When  a  tense  is  simiAy  jpast,  present,*  or  fu- 
ture, without  any  other  hmitation,  it  is  called  an  ab- 
solute tense;  as,  ''I  sing,"  *'I  sang,"  "I  shall  sing." 

(a.)  Besides  relating  to  the  time  of  the  speaker,  an  event  may 
oe  referred  to  another  time  specified  in  the  sentence  ;  as,  "  Ed- 
ward was  writing  at  noon."  Here  the  act  of  writing  is  antecedent 
10  the  time  of  the  speaker,  but  simultaneous  with  a  specified  time, 
"af  noon." 

(^.)  As  in  the  first  relation,  so  in  this,  the  time  of  an  event 
may  be  simutaneous  with,  antecedent  to,  or  subsequent  to,  the  speci- 
fied time. 

(c.)  This  double  relation  of  the  tenses  will  be  best  exhibited  to 
the  eye  by  the  following  table  :  — 


Point  assumed. 


Event. 


Edward  was  writing,    .  .  (ante.) 


1st  ReL        Pomt  specified.    2d  ReL 
before  noon,  (a?ite.) 
at  noon,  .  .  (^simul.) 
after  noon,   (stibse  \ 
rime  of  r  before  noon,  (ante.'j 

the       <^  Edward  is  writing,      .  .  (simul  )  <  at  noon,  .  .  (simul.) 
Speaker.  v  afler  noon,    (subse.) 

r  before  noon,  [ante.) 
Edward  will  be  writing,    (^suls.)  <  at  noon,..  .  (simul.) 

C  after  noon,    (subse.) 

Note.     The  event  is  referred  to  the  points  mentioned  on  the 
light  and  lel\  of  it;  thus,  "was  writing"  is   antecedent  to  thf» 


ANALYSIS    OF     SExNTENCES.  41 

point  assumed,  (the  time  of  the  speaker,)  but  may  be  either  ante- 
cedent to,  simultaneous  with,  or  subsequent  to,  the  point  speci- 
fied, (before,  at,  after  noon.) 

80.  When  a  tense  refers  to  a  time  specified  in 
the  sentence,  it  is  called  a  relative  tense;  as,  "Ed- 
ward had  written  before  night ; "  "  Edward  will 
have  written  before  noon.^ 

(a  )  R.elative  tenses  require  an  additional  element  of  the  sen- 
tence, and  therefore  cannot  be  fully  discussed  in  this  connection 

(A.)  Some  tenses  are  always  relative;  as,  "The  ship  had 
sailed  before  the  stage  arrived.''  Others  may  be  either  absolute 
or  relative  ',  as,  "  He  wrote;  "  "  He  Vva-ote  in  the  morning." 

81.  Each  general  division  of  time  has  two 
tenses, — one  absolute,  and  one  relative;  as,  ''I 
love,"  "  I  have  loved  ;  "  "  I  loved,"  "  I  had  loved  ;  " 
"  I  shall  love,"  "  I  shall  have  loved." 

(a.)  Each  absolute  tense  may  be  regarded  as  the  present  of  ita 
division;  as,  "I  stud}',"  (pres.  of  the  pres. ;)  "1  studied,"  (pres. 
of  the  past ;)  "  1  shall  study  "  (pres.  of  the  future.)  In  the  same 
manner,  each  relative  tense  may  be  regarded  as  the  perfect  of  its 
present;  as,  "I  have  studied,"  (perf.  of  "  I  study;")  "1  had 
studied,"  (perf.  of  "I  studied;")  "I  shall  have  studied,"  (perf. 
of  "  I  shall  study.") 

(6.)  Each  perfect  tense  denotes  the  completion  of  an  act  in 
the  time  to  which  it  refers,  that  is,  its  present. 

82.  There  are,  therefore,  six  tenses,  —  three 
absolute,  (ihe 2:)resent,  the  past,  and  the  future,)  and 
three  relative,  (the  j)resent  perfect,  the  past  pe? feet, 
and  the  future  perfect.)  They  may  be  thus  ex- 
hibited :  — 

{The  Present  Tense^  which  denotes  present  time. 
The  Present  Perfect  Tense,  which  denotes  a 
past  time  completed  in  the  present- 
4* 


42  ANA    TSiS     OK     -Sir.v.  J'.Ni:ES. 

/■  The  Fast  Tense^  v/hicli  dRnotes  past  tmic. 
II.    Pas.  <  The  Pas/.  Perfect   Tcnse^  which  denotes  past 
'      time  completed  in  the  past. 
(  The  Future  Tense^  which  denotes  future  tinne. 
Ill     Put.    I  'Y\\Q  Future  P<irfect  Tense,  which  denotes  a  fu- 
^      ture  time  c  )mpleted  in  the   Uture. 

(fl)  The  future  perfect  '^elates,  1st,  to  ar  .Iher  future  time, 
and  2d,  through  that,  t  tlie  time  of  the  speaker.  So  the 
past  perfect  relates  1st,  'o  another  past  timi;,  and  2d,  through 
thit,  to  the  time  o:  the  speaker.  But  the /^rsseraf  perfect  relates 
to  tie  present  tine,  and,  simultaneous  with  it,  to  the  time  of 
the  speaker.  Hence,  the  present  perfect  has  but  one  point  of 
reference,  since  the  present  time  and  the  time  of  the  speaker  are 
the  same.  On  this  account,  the  present  p(;rfect  loses  one  im- 
portant feature  of  a  relative  tense,  namely,  two  different  points 
of  reference.  Its  relation  to  the  present  is,  however,  precisely 
like  that  of  the  past  perfect  to  the  past,  or  the  future  perfect  to  the 
future. 

83.  The  absolute  tenses  (except  the  future)  may 
have  three  forms ;  —  the  common,  which  represents  a 
customary  act  with  indefinite  time  ;  the  j/rogressive, 
which  represents  an  nn finished  act  with  definite 
time  ;  the  emphatic, '  which  represents  an  act  re- 
peated, or  stated  with  emphasis ;  it  is  also  tised  in 
interrogative  sentences.  The  relative  tenses  biive 
two  forms,  —  the  comnion  and  the  progressive, 

84.  The  indicative  mode  lias  six  tenses. 

EXAMPLES    OF    THE    ABSOLUTE    TENSES. 

fl  write,  [common  fcrm.) 
I  am  writing,  [progressive  form.) 
1  do  write,  [emphatic  form.) 

{I  wrote,  [common.) 
I  was  writing,  {progressive.) 
I  did  wrile.  [emphatic.) 


ANALYSIS     OF    SENTKNCES. 


*3 


J.       ,r,        (I  shall  write,  [common.) 

\  I  shall  be  wrhing,  (j)rogressive.) 


EXAMPLES    OF    THE    RELATIVE    TENSES. 

I      p  ,        p  J  ^  have  written,  (common.) 

*i,      J-  7  Co  •      jl  • 


'  \  I  hr 


€lSt. 


have  been  writing,  (progressive.) 
p  (  I  had  written,  (common.^ 
^'  \  I  ha 


t. 


had  been  writing,  (progressive.) 
p    j  I  shall  have  written,  (common.) 

\  I  shall  have  been  writing,  (progressive. 

(a.)    The  emphatic  form  is  confined  to  the  indicative  and  im 
^  rative  modes  ;  and  the  progressive  and  empliatic,  to  the  active 
foice. 

Note.     Study  Lesson  XL,  in  the  Appendix. 

85.    The  potential  mode  has  four   tenses,  each 
havino;  two  forms. 


Divisions. 


Tenses. 


'Pre''.  Tense. 


I.  Pres. 


\ 


^Pres.  Perf. 


Past  Tense. 


n.  Past.  I 


^  Past  Per/. 


EXAMPLES. 

Forms. 
I  may,  can,  or  must  write,  (com- 
mon form.) 
I  may,  can,  or  must  be  writing, 

(progressive  form. ) 
I  may,  can,  or  must  have  written, 

(common  form.) 
I  may,  can,  or  must  have  been 

writing,  (progressive  form.) 
I  might,  could,  would,  or  should 

write,  (common  form.) 
I  might,  could,  v/ould,  or  should 

be  writing,  (progressive form.) 
I  migVit,  could,  would,  or  should 

hu  ■>  e  written.  ( coynmon  form. ) 
I  might,  could,  would,  or  should 

have  been  writing,  (prog.forrti.) 


4  ANALYSIS    OF     SENTENCES. 


S6.  Since  the  subjunctive  is  nothing  more  than 
the  indicative  or  potential,  under  the  miiuence  of 
some  particle  denoting  condition,  (^y,  though,  unless^ 
&c.,)  it  has  the  same  tenses  as  the  mode  from  which 
it  is  derived 

87.  The  imperative  has  but  one  tense,  with 
three  forms. 

LXAMPLES.  • 

{Write ,  ( common  form. ) 
Be  thou  writing,  [progressive  form.) 
Do  thou  write,  [emphatic  form.) 

88.  The  infinitive  has  two  tenses,  each  having 
two  forms. 

EXAMPLES. 
Division.  Tenses.  Forms. 

Pres.  Tense,  [  ^^  ^^^^^®'  (^<>'"^''^^onform.) 
r    p,      \  \  To hQwnimg., (progressive form.) 

{To  have  written,  [common form.) 
To  have  been  writing,  [progres- 
siveform.) 

89.  The  participle  has  three  forms. 

EXAMPLES. 

Present.  .  .  .  Writing. 
Past Written. 

Perfect.  .  .  .  Having  written. 

(a.)    Analogy   would  seem  to  require  the  following  arrange- 
aent  of  the  participles  :  — 

J      p        C  Pres.  Tense.    .  ,  .  Writing 
^^^'  i  Fr 


I.    Past.^ 


es.  Perf.   ....  Having  written 

Past  Tense Written 

Past  Perf. 


ANALYS[S    OF     SENTENCES.  4^ 

Note.     The  pupil  sliould  now  study  the  several  lessons  on  tlie 
verb   found  in   the  Appendix.      He  should  then  care  ally  per 
Conn  the  following  exercises  :  — 

Models  for  parsing  the  Verb. 

Analyze  the  sentences  according  to  the  models,  Sec.  II. 

The  hoy  is  diligen.. 

Is  ,  t is  an  irregular  intransitive  verb,'  (princi- 
pal parts,  be,  was,  been,)  in  tlie  indica- 
tive mode,  present  tense,  third  person, 
singular  number,  and  agrees  with  its 
subject,  "  boy  ; "  according  to  Rule  IV., 
"  The  verb  must  agree,"  &c. 

James  should  have  come. 

Sliould  have  come  is  an  irregular  intransitive  verb,  in  the 

potential  mode,  past  perfect  tense,  thirrl 
person,  singular  number,  and  agrees 
with  its  subject,  "  James  ;  "  accordhig  to 
Rule  IV. 

Dejjart. 

Depart is  a  re"fular  intransitive  verb,  in  the  im- 

perative  mode,  present  tense,  second 
person,  singular  number,  and  agrees 
with  thou  understood ;  *  according  to 
Rule  IV 

Children  should  obey  their  parents. 

Sliould  obey  ....  is  a  regular  transitive  verb,  (prlrc^pal 

parts,  obey,  obeyed,  obeyed,)  active  voj  'e, 

*   Whoii  ihe  subji.'ct,  or  any  other  part  of  a  f>roposition,  is  oniit- 
Icd,  it  is  said  to  be  iinilerslooa. 


46  ANALYSIS    C&'     SENTENCES. 

\ 

potential  mode,  past  tense,*  third  persGn, 
plural  number,  and  agrees  with  its  sub- 
ject, "  children  ;  "  according  to  Rule  IV. 

Note,.    The  relation  of  the  transitive  verb  to  its  object  will  be 
lliily  explained  in  a  subsequent  section. 

He  is  deceived. 

Is  deceived is   a   regular   passive    verb,   (transitive 

verb,  passive  voice,)  (principal  parts, 
deceive,  deceived,  deceived,)  in  the  in- 
dicative mode,  present  tense,  third  per- 
son, singular  number,  and  agrees  with  ita 
subject,  "  he  ; "  according  to  Rule  IV. 

Note.     The  uses  of  the  subjunctive,  ivjinitivc,  and  the  partici- 
ples, will  be  explained  hereafter. 

Exercise   14. 

Write  subjects  to  the  following  verbs  ;  —  - 

Teach,  instruct,  learn,  speak,  say,  utter,  weep,  lament 
rejoice,  bloom,  laugh,  move,  bring,  obey,  try,  bite,  dance 
fight,  praise,  censure,  adorn,  wound,  punish,  devour,  croak, 
whisde,  amuse,  disturb,  be  committed. 

Let  the  first  twelve  be  in  the  indicative  mode,  two 
in  each  tense. 

Model. 

Pres.  i  ^''^'''  ^■''''^''''  Past  Tense,  i  ^^  ^^^^"^'^- 

(  James  instructs.  {  We  spoke. 

Let  the  next  twelve  hz  in  the  potential  mode,  three 
in  each  tense.  (See  model  above.) — Write  the  re- 
inainder  in  the  imperative  mode.  —  Give  the  infinitive 
and  participles  to  ten  of  the  above  verbs. 

*  More  properl} ,  "  should  obey  "  denotes  a  universal  obnga- 
»on,  without  reference  to  time. 


f 


analysis   of   sf.ntence3.  4t 

Ekercise   15.  —  Miscellaneous. 

Analyze  and  parse  the  following  sentences,  apply- 
ijig  the  four  rules  which  are  used  in  the  construction 
of  the  subject  and  predicate.  (See  the  preceding 
models  for  analyzing  and  parsing.) 

John  was  a  disciple.  Jesus  was  betrayed.  David  is 
called  the  psalmist.  You  can  learn.  He  will  be  writing. 
He  had  been  defeated.  Stop.  Be  active.  Become  a  sol- 
dier. They  should  be  industrious.  He  might  have  been 
captured. fai.  George  may  have  returned.  Do  be  still 
Henry  will  have  been  planting.     I  spoke.     Do  sta}-. 

Note.  If  the  preceding  exercises  should  not  be  sufficient  to 
make  the  pupil  perfectly  familiar  with  the  properties  and  con- 
struction  of  the  subject  and  predicate,  they  should  be  multiplied, 
at  the  discretion  of  the  teacher.  It  is  all  important  that  these 
two  elements  of  the  sentence  be  perfectly  understood  before 
proceeding  farther. 


-y- 


SECTION    V. 

THE    ADJECTIVE    ELEI\IENT.  — FIRST   SUBORDINATE 

ELEMENy. 

90.  It  has  been  seen,  (Sec.  III.)  that  the  subject 
13  susceptible  of  certain  inflections,  (41,)  which 
indicate  its  number,  person^  and  gender.  These 
changes  are  properly  called  modifications  of  the  sub- 
ject, since  they  restrict  its  application  to  some  per- 
son or  thing  affected  by  one  or  more  of  these 
^>ro  per  ties. 


ANALYSIS     OF     iENTENCPIS. 


91.  It  is  often  necessary  to  restrict  the  applica 
tion  of  the  subject,  by  referring  to  other  propertia 
which  cannot  be  indicated  by  inflection.  Tiie 
method  pursued  in  all  languages  is  the  same, 
namely,  to  add  to  the  subject  such  word  or  words 
as  shall  designate  the  property  required  ;  as,  "  Birds 
fiy;""^/GcA:  birds  fly;"  ^^  Canary  birds  fly;" 
^' Large  birds  fly." 

(a.)  Some  nouns  are  sufficiently  definite  without  additional 
words;  such  as  proper  nouns, —  IVilUam^  Philadelphia;  manv 
of  the  abstract  nouns,  —  goodness^  virtue,  vice;  many  nouns 
denoting  substance,  —  as,  grass,  wood. 

(6.)  Pronouns  being  used  to  denote  the  relation  of  the  subject 
to  the  speaker,  or  referring  to  nouns  which  have  before  been 
introduced  and  sufficiently  limited,  seldom  receive  additional 
words. 

92.  All  such  additional  words  are  called  modiji- 
ers,  because  they  modify,  limit,  or  restrict,  the  appli- 
cation of  tae  subject. 

93.  The  modifiers  of  the  subject,  or  of  the  noun 
in  any  of  its  relations,  ^orm  a  new  element  of  the 
sentence,  called  the   adjedive   element. 

94.  The  subject  considered  apart  from^  the  ad 
jectiv^e  element,  is  called  the  grammatical  subject, 
or  simply  the  subject. 

95.  The  subject  taken  with  the  words  which 
limit  it,  is  called  the  complex  or  logical  subject. 

•4 

(a.)   The   adjective  element  generally  answers  the  questions, 
iVhat  ?     What  land  ?     Hoio  mamj  ?     Whose  ? 

96.  All  modifiers  of  the  subject,  or  of  the  noun 
in  any  of  its  relations,  are  used  to  restrict  its  applv- 
vation.     This  may  be  done,  — 


ANALiVSiS     UF     SLNTENCES.  49 

^a.)    Without  affecting  any  of  li^  ^^ro^crties ;  as, 
**  iWo  men  ; '''  "  these  men  ;  "  — 

(b.)    By    designating   some  property ;   as,  "^oofe 


laf.n ; " 


(c.)  By  identifying  it;  as,  "  Paul  fAe  apostle'/^ 
'■  Peter  ^Ae  hermit ;  "  — 

(c?.)  By  representing  it  as  an  object  possessed; 
as,  '*  David^s  harp." 

97.  The  first  two  limitations  are  effected  by 
x^djective  words;  the  second  two,  by  nouns  or  pro- 
nouns. 

1.  —  ADJEC Tl  VE    WORDS. 

98.  All  adjective  words  (articles,  adjectives,  and 
participles)  are  divided  into  two  classes,  —  limiting 
and  qualifying. 

99.  Limiting  adjectives  are  used  to  restrict  the 
application  of  the  noun,  without  expressing  any  of 
its  properties;  as,  "fen  commandments;"  ^^  each 
lesson." 

100.  Qualifying  adjectives  are  used  to  restrict  the 
application  of  the  noun  to  a  class  of  objects  which 
possess  a  cert3.'m  property  in  common;  as,  ^^  good- 
men  ;  "   "  idle  boys  ;  "   "  tall  trees." 

(a.)  An  unlimited  noun  ia  taken  in  the  widest  extent  of  ila 
application;  as,  "Horses  run."  Here  "horses"  appHes  to  the 
whole  race,  and  embraces  every  possible  property  of  the  horse. 
A  noun  is  said  to  be  limited  in  the  extent  of  its  application  when 
the  number  of  individuals  included  in  it  is  diminished.  Tliua 
"  horses"  embraces  a  greater  number  of  individuals  than  "sixty 
ho:ses"  or  "white  horses."  "Sixty"  excludes  all  above  that 
uumber,  but  may  include  those  of  any  description  whatever; 
whereas  "  white  "  excludes  all  of  any  other  color,  and  embraces 
those  only  whic:i  possess  that  property  in  common. 

5 


50  ANALYSIS     OF     SENTENCES 

101.  Among  limiting  adjectives  are  reckoned 
the  article,  pronominal  adjectiva^  numerals^  and  those 
which    express    some    circumstance    of  place,    time, 


cause,  or  manner. 

Note.     See  Appendix,  Lesson  Vli. 

Exercise    16. 

Apply  limiting  adjectives  to  the  subjects  of  the 
following  sentences :  — 

Hoi-se  neighs.     Arts  are  improved.     Citizens  comphim. 

lousiness  is  completed.  Soldier  stood.     Dog  ran.     Cloud 

is  black.     Flen  is  dead.  Duck  swam.     Storm  did  abate. 

Wind  blew.     Rain  fell.  Men  were  captured.     Walk  was 

taken.     Book  is  useful.  Houses  are  built.     Ride  is  pleas- 
ant. 

Model.  That  horse  neighs. 

Write  twelve  entire  sentences,  applying  limiting  ad- 
jectives to  the  subjects. 

102.  Among  qualifying  adjectives  are  reckoned, 
1st,  all  those  adjectives  which  express  any  property 
of  the  nomi  ;  and  2d,  the  several  participles. 

(a.)  A  qualifying  adjective  or  participle  is  an  attribute,  (16.) 
It  is  said  to  be  used  as  a  modifier  when  it  is  assumed  of  a  noun, 
as  a  -predicate  when  it  is  affirmed  of  it, 

(6.)  A  limiting  adjective  does  not  properly  express  any  attri- 
bute of  the  noun,  and  consequently  is  seldom  compared  or  used  as 
a  predicate. 

Note.  Study  Lesson  VII.,  in  the  Appendix,  and  tnen  per- 
form the  following  exercise  :  — 

Exercise   17. 

Apply  qualifying  adjectives  to  the  subjects  of  iht 
following  propositions :  — 


ANALYSIS    OF     SF.iNTKN^^ES.  51 

Maxim  is  given.  Scriptures  teach.  Men  desire.  Re- 
proof hardens.  Habits  should  be  avoided.  Counsels 
were   given.      Character   shines.      Cottage    stood. 

Write  predicates  to  the  following  subjects,  limiting 
each  subject  by  some  Qualifying  adjective  or  parti' 
ciple  :  — 

l^ady,  paper,  lord,  cousin,  light,  darkness,  ambassador, 
army,  commissioner,  tiger,  traitor,  tutor,  pupil,  window, 
cellar,  chamber,   chancellor,  monk,   friar,  countess. 
Model.     The  good  lady  assisted. 

Write  subjects  to  the  following  predicates,  and  let 
each  be  limited  by  a  limiting  and  a  qualifying  adjeo 
tive. 

Was  prepared ;  was  made ;  was  served  u}) ;  had  scat- 
tered ;  is  desirable ;  were  tamed ;  is  deliglitful ;  had  ar- 
rived;  can  jump ;  might  have  slept;  did  eat;  could  fight; 
was  avoided ;  could  have  been  stopped  ;  may  be  upset  j 
was  emptied  ;  sailed  ;  was  prostrated. 

Model.      That  sumptuous  feast  was  prepared. 

103.  Adjectives  used  as  modiiiers  should  be 
parsed  by  the  following  rule.     (See  Rule  III.) 

Rule  V.  An  adjective  or  participle  used 
as  a  modifier,  belongs  to  the  noun  or  pronoun 
which  it  limits. 

Models  for  Analyzing  and  Parsing. 

Tall  oaks  bend. 

It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  contains  but  ono 

proposition,  (27.) 

Oal's is  me   subject,  because   it  is  that  of  whicK 

the  action  "  bend "  is  affirmed. 


H 


52  AN x-i  LYSIS    OF     SENTENCES, 

Be7id is  the  predicaie,  because  it  isthe  actiori 

afHrmed  of   'oaks." 

Oaki  (the  subject)  is  limited  by  "  tall,"  an  adjective  ele- 
ment of  .he  first  class,  denoting  the 
kind  {fall)  of  oak, 

T'tll  oaks !s  the  <:oii)|)!ex  subject. 

Fall is  u  quiiiifyiag  adjective,  of  the  positive 

degree,  ((.;onipared,7a//,  taller,  tallest^) 
and  is  as.'d  liS  a  modifier  of  the  sub- 
ject ;  according  to  Rule  V,,  "  An  ad- 
jective or  participle  used  as  a  modifier, 
belongs  to  the  noun  or  pronoun  v/hich 
it  limits."" 

This  truth  is  clear, 

i^oTE.     Analyze  a.s  in  the  previous  example. 

This is  a  limitmg  adjective,  (not  compared,) 

and  is  a  modifier  of  the  subject ;  ac- 
cording to  Rule  V, 

Note.     Clear  is  also  an  adjec'iive,  but  it  is  used  as  the  predicate 
of  the  proposition,  (not  a  uiodifjer,)  and  is  parsed  by   Rule  III 

Bengal  tigers  are  ferocious. 

bengal is  a  limiting  adjective,  denoting  place, 

(not  compared,)  and  is  used  as  a 
modifier  of  the  subject;  according  ru 
Rule  V. 

\      Exercise    18. 

Analyze  the  following  aen'tiicts,  and  jja'^se  the  ad- 
rectiies :  • — 

Subsequent  voyages  were  made:  The  thir'^  cx2)editioii 
was  unfortunate.  Severe  laws  were  passed  Tb^.se  ni- 
scriptious  were  copied.     Modern  history  shcr'i  t>'3  *''idied 


AiNALYSIS     OF     SENTENCES. 


53 


An   erroneous   opinion  prevailed.     A  republican  govern- 
ment was  established.     Thirty  men  were  captured. 

IL  — NO  UNS    OR     FR  ONO  UNS. 

104.  The  subject  may  be  limited  by  a  noun  or 
pronoun  used  to  explain  it  by  designating  its  ojice, 
rank,  character^  or  otherwise  identifying  it;  as, 
*' Peter  the  hermit  preached  the  first  crusade." 

(a.)  The  limiting  noun  or  pronoun  must  represent  the  same 
person  or  thing  as  the  limited  noun. 

(b.)  The  limiting  noun  denotes  some  property  {office^  rank^ 
&c.)  of  the  subject,  and  is  here  used  as  an  assumed  property, 
corresponding  to  the  predicate-nominative,  just  as  the  adjective 
or  participle,  denoting  an  assumed  property,  corresponds  to  the 
predicate-adjective  or  participle. 

105.  A  noun  or  pronoun  thus  used  is  said  to  be  ^ 
in  apposition  with  the  noun  which  it  limits,  and  is 

to  be  parsed  by  the  following  ritle  :  — 

Rule  Vi.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to 
identify  another  noun  or  pronoun,  is  put  bj 
apposition  in  the  same  case ;  as,  "  His  brother 
George  was  absent." 

(a.)  When  the  limiting  noun  denotes  a  person,  it  generally 
agrees  with  the  limited,  in  number^  gender^  and  case.  (60,  a.) 

Model  for  Analyzing  and   Parsing. 

King  Charles  was  beheaded. 

It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because   it  contains  but  one 

proposition. 
King is  the  subject.*  , 


*  The  definitions  may  be    omitted    when   the    pupil  becomes 
familiar  with  them.  - 

5* 


54  ANALYSIS    OF     SENTENOKS. 

Was  beheaded  is  the  predicate. 

King IS  limited  by  "  Charles,"  an  adjective  ele- 
ment of  the  first  class,  used  to  identify  the 
"  king."  "  King  Charles  "  is  the  complex 
subject. 

(Iharles is  a  proper  noun,  of  the  third  person,  sin- 
gular number,  nominative  case,  and  is  used 
to  identify  "  king ; "  according  to  Rule  VI., 
"A  noun  or  pronoun,"  &c.     (See  105,  a.) 

Exercise    19. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  parsijig  the  nouns 
m  apposition :  — 

The  patriarch  Abraham  was  accounted  faithful.  Paul 
the  apostle  was  a  manyr.  The  emperor  Nero  was  a 
cruel  tyrant.  Milton  the  poet  was  blind.  The  disciple 
John  was  beloved.  The  mart}'r  Stephen  was  stoned. 
The  p-eat  navigator  Columbus  was  maltreated.  Henry 
the  scholar  was  crowned  kina;. 

Write  twelve  sentences  limiting   the  subject   by   a 

noun  in  apposition. 

Note.  Let  the  pupil  review  the  declension  of  nouns  and 
personal  pronouns,  (Lesson  III.,  in  tiie  Appendix.) 

106.  The  subject  may  be  limited  by  a  noun  or 
pronoun  which  represents  it  as  an  object  of  posses- 
sion;  as,  ^'-Hcnry^s  book  fell." 

(a.)    This  relation  does  not  alv/ays  denote  possession.     It  may 
denote  the  relation  of  persons  j  aa,  "  William's  cousin;"  —  or  the 
relation  of  the  doer  to  the  thing  done;  as,  "  Solomon's  Temple  ;  " 
—  or  the  relation  of  a  whole  to  its  parts ;  as,  "a  horse's  head  ;' 
'» the  dog's  foot  "  »^ 

( i.)  The  pa?  sessivc  pronouns  mine,  tluiic^  his,  hers,  ours,  yours^ 
and  theirs,  xstq   used  as   nouns,  and   hence   ma}'  be  employed  aa 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  00 

pred-cates,  when  we  wish  to  affirm,  (not  assume)  possession  ;  as, 
•'  Tiie  boolt  IS  mine  ;  "  "  The  ,pen  is  yours." 

107.  A  noun  or  pronoun  thus  used  to  limit  the 
subject  is  parsed  by  the  following  rule  :  — 

Rule  Y 1 1.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  limit 
another  noun  by  denoting  possession,  must  be 
in  the  possessive  case  ;  as,  "  Stephen^  courage 
failed." 

Model  for  Analysis  and  Parsing. 

His  hand  trembles. 

It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  contains  but  one 

projjosition. 
Hand.  .  .  is  the  subject.      (Why?) 
Tremhles  is  the  predicate.     (Why.?) 
His  hand  is  the  complex  subject.     (Why  ?) 
Hand    .  .  is  limited  by  "his,"  an  adjective  element  of  tho 

first  class,  denoting  tchose  hand. 
Bis  ....  is   a    personal    pronoun,  third    person,  singular 

number,  possessive  case,  and  is  the  modifier  of 

"  hand  ;  "  according  to  Rule  VII. 

Exercise  20. 

A.nalyze  the  following  sentences,  ^parsing  the  modi- 
fier  of  the  subject :  — 

The  rook's  nest  was  destroyed,  j  The  bird's  beak  was 
broken.  \  Our  lesson  is  easvi  My  task  is  completed.^ 
VViUiam's  farm  is  productive. ^^   Kufus's  garden  is  watered  / 

Write   twelve   sentences   limiting   the    subject  by   a 
noun  or  pronoun  in  the  jjossessive  case. 

108.  The  adjective  element,  by  an  ellipsis  of  the 
kiourj  to  which  it  belongs,  often  becomes  the  sub- 


5f}  ANALYSn    OF     SENTENCES. 

ject  of  tliG  proposition  ;  as,  "  The  good  may  err;  " 
"  This  is  tlie  book ;  "  "  Many  will  be  disappointed." 

(«.)  In  such  cases,  the  adjective  is  said  to  be  used  as  a  noun, 
(33,  a.)  Thus,  in  the  first  example  above,  "good  "  is  an  adjec- 
live  used  as  a  noun,  third  person,  plural  number,  &c.,  and  is  the 
subject  of  "  may  err.  '      Let  the  pupil  imrite  examples  of  this  kind 

Exp:rcise  21. 


/n 


biaJyze    and   parse    the   following    miscellaneous 
examples :  — 

Tliree  birds  flew.  The  man  awoke.  Good  food  was 
provided".  ^  Every  soldier  escaped.  All  men  are  mortal. 
Tweiity  days  have  passed.  Your  lesson  is  easy.  Wis- 
dom's ways  are  pleasant.  The  king's  council  might  have 
been  able.  John  the  Baptist  was  beheaded.  The  planet 
Venus  has  risen,  Sirius,  the  dog-star,  is  visible.  Boston 
the  capital,  is  populous.  The  goddess  Discord  was 
offended.  Beautiful  plants  were  sold.  Old  iron  is  wanted. 
Becket,  the  archbishop,  was  considered  a  martyr.  The 
east  wind  is  disagreeable.  A  winter  scene  was  repre- 
sented. A  sun-burnt  urchin  came  in.  The  merry  dance 
commenced. 

Wj'ite  twenty  sentences  illustrating  the  four  kinds 
of  modifiers.     (96,  a,  h,  c,  d,) 


'^ 


SECTION    VI. 

THE    OBJECTIVE    ELEMENT.  — SECOND    SUBORDINATE 

ELEMENT. 

109.    By    certain    inflections    (Section  lY.)   the 
predicate   can  be  mad  3  to  indicate  properties  not 


ANALYSIS     OF     SENTENCES.  57 

essential  to  it  as  predicate.  These  are  called  modi- 
jications  oj  chc  predicate^  because  they  restrict  its 
application  to  a  certain  time  or  in  a  certain  manntr, 

110.  VYhen  it  is  necessary  to  restrict  the  appli- 
cation of  the  predicate  by  referring  to  properties 
which  cannot  be  indicated  by  inflections,  other 
T/ords  (as  with  the  subject)  must  be  added. 

111.  All  such  words  are  called  modifiers  of  tli6 
)redicate,  (92.) 

112.  The  predicate,  considered  apart  from  the 
words  that  limit  it,  is  called  the  grammatical  j)ridi- 
cate,  or  simply  the  predicate. 

113.  When  taken  in  connection  with  the  words 
which  limit  it,  it  is  called  the  complex  or  logical 
predicate. 

114.  When  the  predicate  is  a  noun,  (36,  60,)  it 
may  be  limited,  like  the  subject,  by  an  adjective 
element^  (see  Section  V.  ;  )  as,  ''  Francis  is  a  a  in- 
dustrious boy." 

Note.     Let  the  pupil  write  examples  modifying  the  predicate 
nominative  by  either  of  the  four  species  of  modifiers  mentioned  in 
the  last  section.     This  construction  will  need  no  further  illus- 
tration. 

115.  When  the  predicate  is  an  adjective,  it  may 
be  limited  by  an  adverbial  element;  as,  "He  v/as 
awake  early. ^^ 

Note.     This  element  will  be  treated  of  in  the  next  section. 

1 16.  When  the  predicate  is  a  verb,  it  may  bd 
limited  either  by  an  adverbial  or  an  objective  ele- 
ment, or  both ;  as,  "  T  le  boy  studied  his  lesson 
carefully. ^^ 


58  ANALYSIS    OF     SENTENCES. 


I.  —  SINGLE    OBJ  EC  T. 


117.  The  objective  element  is  that  which  is 
iised  to  complete  the  meaning  of  a  transitive  verb, 
(see  Appendix;)  as,  ^' He  opened  (what?)  a  book, 
—  a  knife,  —  the  do'^r,  —  his  hand,  —  his  eyes,''''  &c. 

118.  The  objective  element  becomes  the  subject 
when  the  transitive  verb  assumes  the  passive  form ; 
as,  "Henry  struck  IVilliam;^''  '^  William  was  struck 
by  Henry." 

(a.)  The  objective  element  answers  the  question  IVUom?  or 
What?  as,  "He  loves  (whom?)  George;"  "They  broke 
(what?)  the  ice.'' 

(b.)  The  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  t-he  object  has  the  same 
modifications  (Sec.  III.)  of  number,  gender,  and  person,  as  the 
subject. 

119.  The  following  rule  should  be  applied  in 
parsing  the  object :  - — 

Rule  VI H.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as 
the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  or  its  partici- 
ples, must  be  in  the  objective  case  ;  as,  "  vVe 
paid  him."^^ 

Note.  Review  the  declension  of  nouns  and  personal  pro- 
nouns, Appendix,  Lesson  III. 

Model  for  Analyzing  and  Pausing. 

Cctsar  defeated.  Pomjicy. 

It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  contains  but  one 

proposition.       ^ 
(jfvsar    .......  is  the  subject. 

Defeated is  the  predicate. 

DefcorQd  .  .       .  .  is  limited  by  "  Pom})*>y,"  an  objective  ele* 


AI^ALISIS    OF     SENTEiVCES.  59 

men!  of  the  first  class,  denoting  lohom 
Ctesar   defeated. 

Defeated  Pompey  istlie  complex  predicate. 

Pompey is  a  proper  noun,  of  the   thn*d   person, 

singular  number,  masculine  gender,  ob- 
jective case,  and  is  the  object  of  "  de- 
feated ; "  according  to  Rule  VIII. 

Exercise  22. 

Analyze  the  foUoiving  sentences,  and  parse  the 
object :  — 

Brutus  killed  Caesar.,  Heat  overcomes  me.  ]  The  dog 
pursued  a  fox.  Tiie  fion  ate  a  sheep.  He  views  the 
stars  /  We  built  a  house.  The  ink  soils  the  carpet./'  Jo- 
sephas  wrote  a  history.  William  conquered  England. 
Alfi'ed  defeated  the  Danes.  Bring  a  book.  Repeat  the 
lesson.     He  might  have  been  leading  the  army. 

Write  subjects  and  objects  to  the  following  verbs:  — 

Lead,  praise,  restrain,  know,  fear,  see,  love,  admonish, 
bring,  correct,  frighten,  pursue,  break,  torment,  perplex, 
annoy,  betray,  shig,  open,  disj)lace,  equip,  defend,  punish, 
leave,  desire. 

Change  the  verbs  of  yow'  written   sentences  from 
the  active  to  the  passive  form, 

IMoDEL.     Abraham  led  Isaac.     Isaac  was  led  by  Ahra- 
ham. 

■'   Ih  — DOUBLE    OBJECT. 

Oliject  and  Attribute. 

120.    Some  verbs  are  followed  by  two  objecis 
--  one  denoting  some  person  or  thing,  and  the  oUier 


60 


ANALYSIS     OF     SENTENCES. 


8ome  aztnhute  (15)  of  it ;  as,  '•'  They  a^  pointed  him 
president.''' 

(a.)    "President"  is  an  attribute  of  "him,"  denoting   office. 
(See  note  at  the  bottom  of  page  17.) 

121.  Instead  of  a  substantive,  an  adjective  or 
verbal  attribute  may  follow  the  object  of  such 
verbs. 

EXAMPLES. 

{an  officer,.  .  [substantive  attrihute.) 
jealous,    .  .  .  [adjective  attribute.) 
labor,*  ....  (verbal  attribute.) 

122.  When  such  verbs  assume  the  passive  form, 
the  object  generally  becomes  the  subject,  and  the 
attribute  remains  as  a  predicate. 

EXAMPLES.  ' 

/-  an  officer, .  .  {substantive  attribute. ) 
The  man  was  made  <  jealous,.  .  .  .  (adjective  attribute.) 

'  to  labor,  .  .  .  (verbal  attribute.) 

(a.)  It  not  uafrequently  happens,  however,  that  the  attribute, 
or  second  object,  becomes  the  subject ;  as,  "  ji?i  officer  was  made 
of  the  viany 

(b.)  A  few  verbs  only  can  take,  besides  an  object,  a  substanthe 
attribute  in  the  objective.  Tiiese  are,  make^  appohit^  elect,  create^ 
constitute^  render,  name,  style,  call,  esteem,  thinii,  consider,  regard, 
reckon,  and  some  others. 

(c.)  The  number  which  may  take  an  adjective  or  verbal  attri- 
bxite  is  much  jjreater. 

{d.)  It  should  be  observed,  respecting  either  form  of  the  above 
attributes,  — 

*  The  verbal  attribute  may  take  the  form  of  the  infinitive;  as, 
"1  heard  him  speak  '"  —  or  that  of  the  participle;  as,  "1  heard 
him'^jjeaking  ' 


ANALYSIS    OF     SENTENCES.  61 

(1  )  That  they  dite  predicated,  (not  assumed.)  Compare  '.'.-iiij 
the  example  (121)  the  following,  in  which  the  same  attributes  are 
assumed  :  —  "  They  made  the  man,  an  officer,"  i.  e.  "  who  was  an 
orilcer;"  "  They  made  a. jealous  man;  "  "They  made  a  laboring 
nian." 

(2.)  When  the  verb  is  in  the  active  voice, they  are  prrdicated 
?f  tiie  object,  not  the  subject,  of  the  verb. 

( 3.)  That  the  verb  (in  the  active  voice)  performs  the  office  of 
a  transitive  verb,  governing  the  first  object,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
becomes  a  kind  of  copula,  making  that  object  a  subject,  and  tliP 
second  object  its  predicate.  This  latter  function  of  the  verb 
is  retained  when  it  takes  the  passive  form.  —  See  examples, 
(122.) 

(e.)  The  infinitive  to  be,  or  the  participle  being,  with  as^ 
's  often  placed  between  the  object  and  its  attribute ;  as,  *'  We 
onsidered  him  to  be  too  young,"  or  "  a6*  being  too  young." 


Direct  and  Indirect  Ol)jecis. 

123.  There  is  another  class  of  verbs  followed 
'^  two  objects,  —  one  denoting  some  ^;er5o?i  or 
hing^  and  the  other,  that  to  or    from  Vv^hich    the 

action  tends.     The  former  is  called  the  direct^  and 

the  latter  the  indirect  object ;  as,   "  He  taught  me 

[indirect]   grammar''''    [direct];   ''He    asked    7nc    a 

question.'"' 

(a.)  The  indirect  objcc4;  is  generally  said  to  be  governed  by 
some  preposition  understood.  It  will  be  more  fully  discussed 
under  the  corresponding  head  in  the  next  chapter. 

124.  When  the  verb  assumes  the  passive  form, 
the  direct  object  should  become  the  subject,  the 
Indirect  object  remaining  in  the  objective  case ;  as, 
''  Grammar  was  taught  7ne  by  him." 

(tt.)    Sometimes,   however,  the   indirect   object  becomes    the 


62  ANALYSIS    OF     SENTENCES. 

gubjoct,  leaving  the  direct  object  in  the  objective  case  after  tab 
passive  verb  ;  as,  "  /  was  taught  grammar  by  him." 

(h.)  Some  intransitive  verbs  take  after  them  an  object  of  a 
kindred  signification;  as,  "  He  sang  a  song;^^  "He  played  a 
game.''  Such  verbs  may  take,  also,  an  indirect  object;  as.  "I 
played  him  a  tune  ;  "  "  We  struck  him  a  blow." 

(c.)  The  following  are  some  of  tlie  verbs  which  take  a  direct 
and  indirect  object:  —  buy^  sell.,  play  ^  sing.,  find.,  get.,  lend.,  draw, 
send.,  make.,  pass.,  icrite.,  jjour.,  give^  teach.,  leave.,  bring.,  tell.,  do., 
present.,  throw.,  carry,  ask,  show,  order,  promise,  refuse,  deny, 
provide. 

Exercise  24. 


Vrite  thirty  sentences,  taking  any  of  the  verbs  for- 


predicates  mentioned  in  122,  {b.)  or  124,  (c.) 
Model.     They  appointed  George  secretary. 
Change  the  verbs  into  the  passive  form. 


SECTION   VH. 

THE  ADVERBIAL  ELEMENT.  — THIRD  SUBORDINATE 

ELEMENT. 

H  125.  It  has  been  seen  (Sec.  VI.)  that  certaiu 
verbs  (transitive)  require  the  addition  of  one  or 
more  words  to  complete  the  sense.  Any  verb  or 
adjective  may  take  one  or  more  additional  words 
lO  denote  some  circumstance  of  place,  time^  cause j 
or  manner.  These  additions  constitute  the  adverb- 
ial element. 

(a.)    Such  additions  are  not,  like  the  object,  indispensable  to 
complete  the  sense. 

126.    The   adverbial    element,    in    its    simplest 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  63 

stato,  is  expressed  by  a  class  of  words  called  Ad- 
verbs. 

Note     Let  the  pupil  study  Lesson  XIL,  in  the  Appendix. 
I. -^'ADVERBS  DENOTING   PLACE. 

127.  The  predicate  may  be  limited  by  adverbs 
of  place  ;  as,  "Gome  hither ;  "  "  I  see  him  yonder.''^ 

•128.  Adverbs  of  place  are  used  to  denote  three 
relations,  —  at  a  place,  (Where?) — frojti  a  place^ 
(Whence?)  —  to  a  place,  (Whither?) 

Note.      Whither  and  ichencc  are  now  seldom  used 
II.  — ADVERBS  DENOTING    TIME. 

129.  The  predicate  may  be  limited  by  adverbs 
denoting  time  ;  as,  "He  went  yesterday.^'' 

130.  The  time  denoted  by  the  adverb  is  always 
simultaneous  witli  that  of  the  event.  Hence,  m  re- 
lation to  the  time  of  the  speaker,  (78,  a.)  an  adverb 
may  denote  a  time  jiresent,  past,  ox  future  ;  as,  "  We 
are  now  walking  ;  "  "  We  walked  yesterday ;  "  "  We 
shall  walk  hereafter.''^ 

(a.)  Some  adverbs  have  no  reference  to  either  of  the  three  di- 
visions of  time.  Hence  they  denote  time  absolute ;  as,  abcays, 
tchenever. 

131.  Adverbs  of  time  denote  either  a  ponit,  du- 
ration, or  frequency  of  time,  answering  the  ques- 
tions, JVhen  1     How  long  1     How  often  1 

m.  — ADVERBS   OF   CAUSE   OR   SOURCE. 

132.  The  predicate  may  be  limited  by  ad  verba 
of  cause  ;  as.  "  Why  did  he  leave  ?  "  . 


64  ANALYSIS    OF     SENTENCES. 

(a.)    There   are  properly  no  adverbs    which  denote  a  cause; 
they  rather  inquire  for  one. 


lY.  — ADVERBS  DENOTING  MANNER. 

133.    The  predicate  may  be  limited  by  adverbs 
denoting  manner  ;  as,  "  The  water  flows  gently.^'' 

[a.)  It  has  been  seen  that  mode  is  that  property  of  the  verb, 
(70,)  which  shows  the  manner  of  an  assertion.  The  manner  of 
the  attribute  asserted  is  shown  by  means  of  adverbs. 

~^  (b.)  Adverbs  of  manner  embrace  a  large  class,  ending  inly, 
formed  from  adjectives  denoting  quality.  They  generally  an- 
swer the  questions,  Hmc  ?   Hoto  much  f 

(c.)  Adverbs  answering  the  question,  77o?o  .^  denote  qualitij ; 
tliose  answering  the  question.  How  much?  denote  quantity  or 
de(rrce. 


134.  Besides  those  enumerated,  there  is  another 
class  of  adverbs  which  show  the  manner  of  the 
assertion,  not  the  attribute.  Hence  they  are  caUed 
moclcd  adverbs,  since  they  affect  the  manner  of  the 
asseiiioji,  {70,  a.)  and  not  that  of  the  attribute: 
as,  "  Astrology  is  not  a  science  ;  '^  "  The  sun  had 
scarcely  set." 

(a.)  Adverbs  of  mode  affect  the  degree  of  certainty  with 
which  an  attribute  is  affirmed.  Beginning  with  denial^  there  are 
modal  adverbs  applicable  to  the  several  degrees  of  douht^  tincer- 
fainty,  possibility^  probability,  and  certainty ;  as,  "  My  brother 
will  rtof  come  ;"  '■'■Perhaps  he  will  come;"  '■'■Possibly  he  may 
come  ;  "  "  He  will  probably  come  ;  "  "  He  will  assuredly  come." 

( b.)  The  predicate  adjective  or  participle,  following  copulative 
verbs,  generally  indicates  the  manner  of  the  action,  while,  at  the 
same  time,  it  denotes  some   property  (35,  t.)  of  the  subject ;  as, 

Ths  boy  was  made  sick,'* 

Note.  For  a  list  of  tlie  different  classes  of  adverbs  see  Ap- 
"I'^ndix,  Lesson  XTf. 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  65 

COMPARISON    OF    ADVERBS. 

135.  When  it  is  necessary  to  show  that  one 
predicate  represents  a  quahty  or  an  action  in  a 
higher  or  lower  degree  than  another  with  which 
it  is  compared,  the  comjmrison  is  effected  by  means 
of  an  intervening  adverb;  as,  "George  learned  his 
lesson  sooner  than  James  learned  his." 

(«.)    A  comparison  of  one    predicate    with    another  may    also 
be  indicated  by  means  of  connectives  denoting  comparison. 

136.  Adverbs  should  be  parsed  by  the  follow- 
ing rule :  — 

Rule  IX.     Adverbs  are  used  to  limit  verbsj  r 
participles,  adjectives,  and  other  adverbs. 

Models  for  Analyzing  and  Parsing. 

Light  moves  rapidly. 

It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  contains  bui  one 

proposlLion. 

Light is  the  subject,  because  it  is  that  of  which 

the  action  "  moves  "  is  affirmed. 

Moves is   the    predicate,  because  it  is  the  action 

affirmed  of  "  light." 
Moves  rapidly  is  the  complex  predicate,  because  it  is  the        f^- 
grammatical  predicate,  with  all  it^  limita- 
tions. 
Moves ......  is  limited  by  "  rapidly,"  an  adverbial  ele- 
ment of  the  first  class,  denoting  hoiv  light 
moves. 
PMjndly  ...     is  an  adverb  of  manner,  of  the  positive  do- 

6* 


66  ANALYSIS    OF     i^ENTENCES. 

gree,  (compared,  rapidly^  more  rapidly ^  most  rapidly^') 
and  ILmiis  '  moves ; "  according  to  Rule  IX.,  "  Adverbs 
ianit,  (Sic." 

Exercise  24. 

Analyze    tie  following   sentences^   and    parse    the 

adverbs  :  — 

Human  prudence  should  be  riglitly  understood.  The 
stage  started  early.'  -54m-y  writes  beautifully.  The  wind 
dIows  fiercely.  We  easily  forget  our  own  misdeeds.  We 
caimot  view  tlie  sun  steadily.  One  can  easily  imagine 
himself  a  prfnce.  The  sun  shines  brightly.  The  water 
flows  there.  Perhaps  he  will  do  it.  He  cannot  do  it 
Write  carefully.     Stud}'  attentively.      Conie  here. 

Write  fifteen  sentences,  and  limit   each  predicatt 

by  an  adverb. 

Model  for  all  the  Elements  united. 

Contsant  boaating  always  betrays  incapacity. 

It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  contains  but  one 

proposition. 

Boasting is  the  subject.     (Why.?) 

Betrays is  the  predicate.     (Why.?) 

The  subject is  limited  by  "constant,"  an  adjective 

element  of  the  lirst  class,  denoting   a 
continued  habit. 
Constant  boasting  is  the  complex  subject.     (Why.?)    (95,)^ 

Betrays is    limited,    lirsl,   by    "incapacity,"    an 

objective  element  of  the  first  class,  de- 
noting ivhat  is  betrayed. 
Betrays is   also  modiliod   by  "  always,"  an  ad- 
verbial element  of  the  first  class,  denot- 
ing time  ahsolnte.     (See  130,  a.) 
^  Always  betrays  incapacity . .  is  the  complex  predicate.  (113.) 

s  I 


ANALYSIS     OF     SENTENCES.  67 

Order  of  Parsing  the  Elements. 

1st.    The    subject.  —  2d.     The   predicate.  —  3d. 
The  adjective  element.  —  4th.   The  objective  ele 
ment.  —  5th.    The  adverbial  element. 

137.    The  five  elements  of  the  sentence  (8)  may 
be  thus  represented  :  — 

Constant First  Subordinate. 

BOASTING 


.  Principal. 

BETRAYS      *  * 


•      • 


incajmcity    Second  Subordinate. 

always Third  Subordinate. 

{a.)  To  exhibit  the  class  and  connection  of  tlie  elements  m  a 
general  way,  they  may  be  best  represented  by  a  formula  in  which 
S  shall  staiid  for  the  subject,  P  for  the  predicate,  and  Adj.^  Ohj., 
and  Jdv.  for  the  adjective,  objective,  and  adverbial  elements. 
The  connection  of  the  subordinate  elements  with  the  principal 
is  indicated  by  the  sign  of  addition,  and  the  class  of  each  by  the 
figure  underneath.     Thus. — 

Adj. +  S    ;     P -f- Obj.  +  Adv. 
Class.         11111 

Exercise  25. 

Analyze  (he  following  examples,  and  parse  each 
ivord.      Show   which  have  five    elements,    and    ivhich 

have  not. 

The  pupil  performed  the  task  correctb/.  The  ambitious 
often  deceive  themselves.  Tlie  slothful  seldom  respect 
themselves.  No  man  should  return  an  injury.  Idleness 
begets  poverty.  ■  Animals  run.  Some  animals  run  swiftly. 
The  birds  devour  the  cherries  greedily.  V^irtue  is  often 
neglected.     Socrates  the  philosopher  was  condemned. 

Write  five    sentences    containing  Jive    clemems ;  — 


GS  ANALYSIS    OF     SENTENCES. 

jive^  CGutaimng  four ;  —Jive,  containing  three  :  -^and 
Jive  others,  containing  only  two. 


i- 


SECTION    Vlll. 

IKTEIUEGTIONS,   AND   THE   CASE    INDEPENDENT. 

138.  There  are  certain  words  used  simply  to 
express  the  emotions  of  the  speaker,  which  do  not 
form  any  part  of  a  sentence  ;  as,  oh  I  alas !  ah ! 
such  words  are  called  Interjections,  because  they  are 
thrown  in  between  the  parts  of  a  sentence. 

(a.)    Interjections  have  no  dependence  upon  other  words,  and 
therefore  need  no  further  ilhistration. 

139.  it  is  often  necessary  to  designate  the  per- 
son to  whom  lan.guage  is  addressed.  When  this  is 
done,  his  name  or  title  is  introduced,  generally,  at 
the  beginning  of  tlie  sentence,  but  has  no  gram- 
matical relation  to  the  parts  of  it ;  as,  "  Father,  1 
have  returned  ;  "  "Sir,  defeat  is  impossible." 

140.  A  noun  or  pronoun  thus  used  is  said  to  be 
in  the  nominative  case  indejyendent. 

141.  The  interjection  and  the  nominative  case 
independent  may  be  parsed  by  the  following 
rule :  — 

Rule  X.  The  nominative  case  independ- 
cnt,  and  the  inteijection,  have  no  grammatical 
relation  to  tlie  other  parts  of  the  sentence 


analysis   of   sentences.  69 

Model  for  Analysis  and  Parsing. 

Oh!  father,  I IV ant  that  lily. 

f.  ...  is  the  subject,     (Why  ?) 

Want,  is  the  predicate.     (Why?) 

Want .  is  limited  by  "  that  lily,"  denoting  2vha.t  is  wanted. 

Oh  !   .  is  an  interjection,  having  no  dependence  upon  the 

other  parts  of  the  sentence  ;  according  to  Rule  X. 
Father  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  second  person,  singular 

number,  masculine   gender,  and    nominative    case 

independent ;  according  to  Rule  X. 

Exercise  26. 

Write  ten  sentences,  each  containing  a  nominative 
case  indejiendcnt,  an  interjection,  or  both.  Analyze 
and  parse  according  to  the  model. 


SECTION    IX. 

COMPLEX    ELEMENTS. 

142.  It  has  already  been  shown,  that  the  subject 
and  predicate  may  become  com.plex  by  adding 
other  words  to  them,  giving  'ise  to  the  distinction 
of  grammatical  and  logical  subject  or  predicate. 

(a.)  It  should  be  distinctly  imderstood,  Uiat  all  the  other  ele- 
ments of  a  sentence,  however  long  it  may  be,  must  depend  upor 
the  subjc'cf  and  predicate. 

143     The   subordinate  elements,  also,  may   he- 


"^0  ANALYbiy    OF     SENTENCES. 

come  complex,  giving  rise  to  a  similar  distinction 
of  grammatical  and  logical, 

EXAMPLES. 

Simple  Elements. 

Adj  Sub.  Pred.  Obj  Adt>. 

C  Li>?'.cri9  ....  boys!  ....  will  finish  ....  lessons    .  .  .  quickly! 


Complex  Subject.  Complex  Predicate. 

Complex  Elements. 
Comp.  Adj.         Sub.  Pkkd,  Camp.  Obj.       Comp.  Adv. 

[Very  careless . .  boysj . .  I  will  finish . .  their  lesson.. .  too  quickly  j 

Complex  Subject.  Complex  Predicate. 

144.  In  a  complex  element,  the  simple  element^ 
on  which  the  others  depend,  is  the  hasis  of  it. 
Thus ''careless"  is  the  basis  of  "  very  careless;" 
"lessons"  is  the  basis  of  "their  lessons;"  and 
"  quickly  "  is  the  basis  of  "  very  quickly." 

145.  The  simple  element  which  is  joined  to  the 
basis  is  dependent  upon  it,  and  hence  is  said  to  be 
subordinate  to  it ;  as,  "  He  purchased  a  good  farm." 

(a.)  "Good,"  in  this  example,  is  subordinate  to  "farm" 
This  element,  in  turn,  may  become  the  basis  to  another  elemen* 
subordinate  to  itself;  as,  "  He  purchased  a  ver])  good  farm," 

(/>.)  This  connection  of  elements  may  be  continued  indefinite- 
ly, forming  differ C7it  degrees  of  subordination..' 

146.  Complex  elements  are  formed  by  uniting 
two  or  more  dissimilar  simpl^elements ;  the  one 
being  principal,  and  the  other  subordinate  to  it. 

Besides  being  dissimilar  in  rank,  (i.  e.  one  princijial  and  the 
other  subordinate,) 

(a.)    Two  elements,  dissimilar  in  name,  may  be  united,  — 


ANALYSIS     OF     SENTENCES.  71 

An  adverbial  to  an  adjective  element ;  as,  "  An  exceedingly 
beautiful  river  ornaments  the  town;"  "One  treated  hosjritably 
Bbould  return  the  favor;  "  — 

An  adjective  to  an  objective  element ;  as,  "  My  uncle  drove  a 
spirited  horse.'' 

(b.)  Tv/o  elements,  similar  in  name,  but  dissimilar  in  office., 
may  be  united,  — 

An  adverb  of  quantity  or  degree  to  an  adverb  of  time^  place,  or 
manner;  as,  "We  dined  unusually  late;''  "He  has  gone  too 
far  ;  "  "  The  boat  moves  very  rapidly  ;  "  — 

An  adjective  element  denoting  quality,  number,  order,  &c.,  to 
another  adjective  element  denoting  office  (104)  or  possession, 
(106;)  as,  "John,  the  beloved  disciple,  was  banished;"  '■'■  Tlia 
good  mans  hope  will  not  disappoint  him." 

(c.)  Two  elements,  similar  in  name  and  oflice,  but  dissimilar 
in  their  -particular  application,  may  be  united,  — 

A  noun  in  the  possessive  case  to  a  noun  in  the  possessive  ;  as, 
"  Jacob's  brother's  son  ;  "  — ■ 

A  noun  in  apposition  to  a  noun  in  apposition  ;  as,  "  His  brother 
David  the  painter." 

In  the  first  example,  "brother's  "  limits  "  son,"  and  "  Jacob's  " 
.imits  "  brother's."     In  tiie  second,  "  David  "  limits  "brother,' 
and  "  painter  "'  limits  "  David." 

147.  The  basis  of  a  complex  element  deter- 
mines its  7ia7ne  and  class ;  as,  "  Birds  fly  very 
swiftly  y 

(a.)    "Swiftly,"  the  basis  of  "very  swiftly,"  shows  the  com 
plex  element  to  be  an  adverbial  element  of  the  first  class. 

148.  An  adjective  is  often  made  subordinate,  not 
to  another  adjective  or  noun,  alone,  but  to  both 
united  ;  as,  "  An  active  young  soldier." 

(a.)  When  a  limiting  and  a  qualifying  adjective  both  belong 
lo  the  same  noun,  the  former  should  be  placed  first;,  as,  '■'•all 
good  men  ;  "  "  this  little  book  ;  "  "  the  besieged  city." 

(b.)    The  articles  a  and  the  should  stand  first  with  all  adjec 
lives,  except  many  and  such;  as,  '  many  a  flower;"  "such  a 
book.' 


72  A.>'AL,Vb$3  'J^  SENTENCES. 

Model  for  analyzing  complex  Elements, 

The  king  issued  his  decree. 

It  is  a  simple  sentence. 

King is  the  subjeot. 

Issued is  the  predicate. 

The  subject  is  limited  by  "  the."  "  The  king "  is  the 
complex  subject. 

The  predicate  is  limited  by  "his  decree,"  —  a  complex 
objective  element,  of  the  first  class,  denot- 
ing what  was  issued.  "  Issued  his  decree  " 
is  the  complex  predicate. 

Decree^  ....  the  basis  of  the  complex  objective  element, 

is   Ihnited    by  "his,"  —  a   simple   adjective 

element  of  the  first   class,  denoting   lohose 

decree.     Parse   "decree"   by  Rule   VIII,, 

and  "  his  "  by  Rule  VII. 

Note.     Each  subordinate  element  may  be  complex,  and  should 
>e  analyzed  in  the  same  manner. 

Exercise  27. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences  according  to  the 
model. 

His  oldest  brother's  son  was  sick.  Alfred  the  Great 
subdued  the  Danish  king.  Peter  the  hermit  preached  the 
first  crusade.  William  the  Conqueror  defeated  Harold  the 
Saxon  king.  Excess  produces  premature  old  age.  Touch 
it  very  lightly.  Avarice  often  produces  contrary  effects. 
Interest  speaks  all  languages.  It  acts  all  parts.  Guard 
well  your  own  heart.  The  shade  protected  the  weary  pil- 
grim. Labor  disgraces  no  man.  Joseph,  .Tacob's  favorite 
son,  was  sold.     Moses  received  the  ten  commandments. 

Write  ten  sentences  of  your  own^  making  either  eie- 
meni  complex. 


ANALYSIS     OF     JJPNTKNCES.  73 

SECTION    X. 

COMPOUND    ELEMENTS. 

149.  In  the  preceding  section,  it  has  been 
shown  that  dissimilar  elements  may  be  united  by 
making  one  subordinate  (146)  to  another,  if  is 
often  necessary  to  unite  similar  elements  by  mak- 
ing them  coordinate  with  each  other. 

150.  Two  or  more  elements  are  said  to  be  co- 
ordinate with  each  other,  wlien  they  sustain  the 
ixxime  rank  in  the  sentence,  and  are  placed  in  the 
same  relation  to  s*  me  other  element ;  as,  "  John 
and  James  attended   school." 

(a.)  "  John  "  and  "  Ja-nes  "  are  both  subjects  of  "  attend  ;  " 
they  hold  the  same  rank  (t'f)th  subjects)  in  the  sentence,  and  are 
similar  in  construction ;  th»^v  are  hence  called  coordinate^  which 
means,  of  the,  same  rank  In  the  sentence  ^^  Johns  brother 
James  attended  school,"  "John's"  and  "James"  are  subordi- 
nate to  "brother." 

151.  When  two  elements  are  coordinate  with 
each  other,  they  form  one  compound  element ;  as, 
"George  reads  and  writes.^'' 

152.  An  element  may  be  both  complex  and 
compound;  as,  "  George  rcat/^  the  papers  and  write$ 
letters  J^ 

153.  A  subordinate  element  of  the  first  class  is 
joined  to  its  basis  immediately,     (14,  a.,  144.) 

154.  Coordinate  elements  of  any  class  arc 
joined  to  each  other  by  a  peculiar  class  cf  words 
called  Conjunctions. 

(a.)    It  will  be  readily  perceived  that  two  elements  thus  con- 

7 


7  4  ANALYSIS     OF     SENTENCES. 

nected  must  either  be  both  principal  or  both  subordinate  ;  aisd,  ■ 
either  case,  they  must  be  of  the  same  name,  that  is,  both  subjocl* 
both   predicates,  botli  adjective   elements,  &c.     So,  again,    tlu. 
adjective  or  adverbial  elements  thus  connected  must  be  of  the 
same  species;  both  must  express  quality  or  possession,  &c. 

155.  Connectives  are  divided  into  two  general 
classes  —  coordinate  and  subordinate;  so  named 
from  the  elements  which  they  unite. 

156.  Coordinate  conjunctions  are  used  to  con- 
nect similar  elements,  (149 ;)  subordinate  connec- 
tives are  used  to  connect  dissimilar  elements. 

Note.     Subordinate    connectives    will   be    treated  of  in    their 
proper  place. 

157.  Coordinate  conjunctions  are  divided  into 
three  classes  :  — 

{a. )  Copulative^  or  those  wh  ch  add  the  parts  to 
each  other  ;  as,  and^  also,  as  wt  II  as ;  — 

(6.)  Adversative,  or  those  which  show  that  the 
parts  are  opposed  or  contrasted  in  meaning ;  as,  but, 
still,  yet,  nevertheless. 

(c.)  Alternative,  or  those  which  offer  or  deny  a 
choice  between  two  things  ;  as,  or,  nor,  else. 

158.  Coordinate  conjunctions  may  be  used  to 
connect,  — 

(a.)  Two  or  more  simildLT principal  elements ;  — 
subjects  ;  as,  "  Mercury  and  Venus  first  appear  ;  "  — 
predicates  ;  as,  "  This  ancient  city  was  captured  and 
burned. ^^ 

(b.)  Two  or  more  similar  subordinate  elements ; 
—  adjective  elements  ;  as,  "  A  ivise  and  virtuous  j)rince 
iscended  the  throne;" — objective  elements;  as 
'Hercules  killed  a  lion  and  a  boar:^^ — adverbial 


ANALYSIS    OF     SENTENCES.  76 

•lements;    as,   ''He  \3.\ored  faithfully    and    success- 
fully:' 

159.  The  parts  of  a  compound  element  have  a 
common  relation  to  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 

Note.  Coordinate  conjunctions,  used  to  connect  subordinate 
elements,  must  always  unite  tliose  of  the  same  degree  of  sub. 
ordination  (145,  b.)  ;  as,  "  He  sent  Samuel,  his  first  and  only  ^on." 
"  Son  "  is  subordinate  to  "  Samuel,"  and  ^'- first  "  and  '■'■only"  are 
alike  subordinate  to  "  son ;  that  is,  they  are  of  the  same  degree 
of  subordination. 

160.  The  following  is  the  rule  for  parsing  coor- 
dinate conjunctions :  — 

Rule  XI.    Coordinate  conj unctions  are  used 
to  connect  similar  elements. 

Models  for  Analyzing  and  Parsing. 

Socrates  and  Plato  were  distinguished  philosophers. 

It  is  a  sentence  having  a  compound  subject.* 

Socrates  and  Plato  form   the   compound  subject,  because 

they  are  united  by  "  and,"  and  have  a 
common  (159)  predicate,  "were  phi- 
losophers." 

The  subject is  not  limited. 

The  predicate  ...  is  limited  by  "  distinguished,"  an  ad- 
jective element  of  the  first  class,  used 
to  describe  "  philosophers." 

And is  a  coordinate  conjunction,  (copula- 
tive,) and  connects  the  two  simple  sub- 
jects ;  according  to  Rule  XI. 

*  A  sentence  having  but  one  of  its  elements  compound,  is  not 
properly  a  simple  sentence,  (27,)  nor  is  it  strictly  a  compound  (29) 
sentence.  It  may,  not  improperly,  be  called  s.  partial  compound, 
aince  one  of  its  parts  is  compound.  All  such  sentences  may  be 
converted  into  complftp  compounds,  as  will  be  shown  hereafter 


76  ANALYSIS     OF       ENTEN'CES. 

Note.  Two  subjects  uuited  by  a  coordinate  conjunction,  do 
not  form  a  compound  vsubject,  unles'i  the  predicate  may  belong  to 
each  when  taken  separately;  as,  "  i'ocrates  was  a  distinguished 
philosopher,"  and  "  Plato  was  a  distinguished  philosopher."  But 
not  so  with  the  following  proposit'ons -.  —  "Two  and  two  are 
four;"  "Vice  and  misery  are  ins  parable."  We  cannot  say, 
"Two  are  four  and  uvo  <ire  four  ;  '  "Vice  is  inseparable  and 
tiuser_y   is  inseparable." 

The    same    distinction    sliould    h^■    obsj^rved    in    any    element 
♦*  The   boat    sails  bphccen    Hroohlun    ■  ^id  A'ew    York;''  not  "be- 
tween Brooklyn  and  betv/eeu  New  ^  wk." 

The  soldier  was  weak,  Im/  courageous. 

It   is  a  sentence  having  a  simpj/?  «iubject  and  com- 
pound pred'?at',. 

Soldier is  the  subject. 

Was  weak  and  ivas  courageous  fo.Tn  tlie  compound  predi- 
cate, because  they  beioni^  ii  common  to  the 
same  subject  —  "«o'(^icr.'' 
The  subject  .  .  is  limited  by  "  th*,"  an  a'vyclive  element 
of  the  first  ciass,  uiJcvi  to  a^tio  '-soldier." 

But is  a   coordinate  ccnjurotion,  (acversative,' 

and   connects  the  two  predic9tes   by  coi^ 
trasting  the  latter  with  the  fori'cr,  a<.'^,c"t 
•,  ing  to  Rule  XI. 

You  may  buy  hooks   or  slats'^. 

It  IS  a  sentence  having  a  compound  objective  v°iement, 

Vou is  the  subject. 

May  buy  ...  is  the  predicate. 

Vou is  not  limited. 

>\Iay  buy  ...  is  limited  by  "  books  or  sVateii,"  a  compourit 

objective  element,  of  the  firr-t  cluss«  showm£- 

what  may  be  bouglit. 


ANALYSIS    (JV     SENTENCES.  77 

Or is  a  coordinate  conjunclioR,  (alternative,)  show- 

iniT  that  a  choice  is  offered  between  "  books  " 
and  "  slates,"  which  are  connected  by  it ;  ac- 
cording to  Rule  XL 

161.  Since  a  compound  element  may  have  a 
verb  or  pronoun  agreeing  with  it,  the  following  rule 
should  be  observed  :  — 

Rule  XII.  When  a  verb  or  pronoun  relates 
to  two  or  more  nouns  connected  by  a  coordi- 
nate conjunction,  — 

1st.  If  it  agrees  with  them  taken  conjointly^ 
it  must  be  in  the  plural  number;  — 

2d.  But,  if  it  agrees  with  them  taken  sepa- 
rately^ it  must  be  of  the  same  number  as  that 
which  stands  next  to  it. 

3d.  If  it  agrees  with  one,  and  not  the  other, 
it  must  be  of  the  same  number  as  that  with 
which  it  agrees. 

EXAMPLES. 

1.       Charles  and  his  sister  were  absent. 

Charles  or  his  sister  was  absent. 
J  Neither  Charles  nor  his  sister  was  absent. 
^  Charles  or  his  sisters  tvere  absent. 
\  Either  his  sisters  or  Charles  himself  was  absent 

Not  Charles,  but  his  sister,  loas  absent. 
Charles,  and  not  his  sister,  loas  absent. 
^'   \  Charles,  as  well  as  his  sister,  was  absent. 
Not  Charles,  but  his  sisters,  were  absent. 
^  Charles,  and  not  his  sisters,  t/xis  absent. 


tS  ANALYSIS     OF     SENTENCES. 


(a.)    When  the  connected   parts  are  preceded  by  each^  every ^ 
and  no,  the  verb  or  pronoun  should  be  in  the  singular  number. 

162.  When  the  parts  connected  by  a  coordinate 
conjunction  are  of  different  persons  a  verb  should 
agree  with  the  first  person,  rather  than  the  second 
or  third,  and  with  the  second  rather  than  the 
third;  as,  ''John  and  I  are  coming:"  "Thou  or 
Ji»hn  art  guilty." 

163.  A  compound  predicate  generally  contains 
similar  attributes^  each  being  a  verh^  a  participle,  an 
adjective,   or   a  noun. 

(a.)  The  parts  generally,  though  not  always,  agree  in  mode 
and  tense. 

164.  When  two  or  more  nouns  in  the  possessive 
case  are  connected, —  1st,  if  the  object  possessed 
belongs  to  the  two  conjointly,  the  sign  of  jiossession 
should  be  applied  to  the  last  only  ;  as,  Little  and 
Bro2vn\  store ;  —  but,  2d,  if  different  objects,  hav- 
ing tlie  same  name,  are  possessed,  the  sign  of  pos- 
session ('s)  should  belong  to  them  separately;  as. 
"  Greeiileafs  and  Emerson^ s  Arithmetic^ 

Exercise    28. 

Analyze  the  folloiving  sentences,  i)arsing  the  con- 
junctions and  the  verbs  :  — 

The  Sim  and  moon  stood  still.  Abraham,  Isaac,  and 
Jacob,  were  Jewish  patriarchs.  Exercise  ferments  the 
humors,  throws  off  redundancies,  and  assists  nature.  The 
plain  and  simple  style  recommen^is  and  heightens  the  sub- 
lime. Education  expands  and  elevates  the  mind.  Reli- 
gion refines  and  purifies  the  affections      Many  very  worthy 


ANALYSIS    OF     SENTENCES.  T9 

Bnd  sensible  people  have  certain  odd  tricks.     Some  people 
do  little  good,  but  much  evil. 

Write  predicates  to  the  following  compound  sub^ 
jects  :  — 

Washington  and  Lafayette  ;  sun  and  moon  ;  my  brother 
ami  I ;  Samuel  or  Peter ;  silver  or  gold ;  neither  one  nor 
the  other  t  not  Adam,  but  Eve  ;  snow,  as  well  as  rain ; 
William  or  his  sons ;  Cain,  and  not  Abel ;  Jacob  or  his 
children;  the  members  or  the  president;  not  the  children, 
but  the  father ;  George,  and  Joseph  also  ;  every  man  and 
woman  ;  each  boy  and  girl. 

Model.  Washington  and  Lafayette  ivere  distingimhed 
generals. 

Write  compound  predicates  to  the  following  sub- 
iccts :  — 

Promises,  murderer,  emperor,  picture,  Bible,  boys,  chil- 
dren, grammar,  Arnold,  Cicero,  Mahomet,  coal,  religion, 
virtue,  diligence,  behavior,  kindness. 

Model.     Promises  are  often  made  and  broken. 

Write  fifteen  sentences  of  your  oivn,  limiting  the 
subjects  of  the  first  five  by  a  compound  adjective  element^ 
—  the  predicates  of  the  next  five  by  a  compound  ob* 
jective  element,  —  and  the  predicates  of  the  last  five 
by  a  compound   tdverbial  element. 

Models.  A  large  and  beautiful  horse  was  killed. 
The  flood  swept  away  trees,  fences,  houses,  and  barns. 
Some  men  sm  frequently,  deliberately,  and  presump- 
tuously. 

Write  ten  sentences,  making  any  two  elements  in 
tach  compound. 

Model.  George  and  David  study  gramviar  and  arith- 
metic. 


80  ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES. 


SECTION    XI. 

SEVERAL  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  SAME  NAME.— 
RECAPITULATION. 

165.  We  have  seen  (Sec.  VIII.)  that  several 
dissimilar  elements  may  unite,  and  form  one  com- 
plex element,  and  (Sec.  IX.)  that  several  similar 
elements  may  unite,  and  form  one  compound  ele- 
ment. Besides  these,  there  may  be  several  ele- 
ments which  d)  not  unite  with  each  other,  but 
form  two  or  more  separate  elements  of  the  same 
name  ;  as,  "  An  indolent  man  seldom  rises  early. ''^ 

(«.)  Such  elements  are  always  subordinate  to  the  subject  or 
predic-ate,  but  are  neither  subordinate  to^  nor  coordinate  withy 
each  other.     They  may  be  either  simple^  complex^  or  compound. 

166.  There  may  be  several  different  adjective 
elements ;  as,  "  The  good  parson,  Mr.  Wiseman^ 
has  paid  us  a  visit." 

167.  There  may  be  two  objective  elements,  ( 120 ; ) 
as,  "  I  gave  him  a  book; "  "  They  made  himpresident.^^ 

168.  There  may  be  several  adverbial  elements ; 
as,  •'  The  sun  is  always  eclipsed  twice  annually. ^^ 

Note.  This  condition  of  the  elements  will  be  illustrated  more 
fully  hereafter. 

RECAPITULATION,   AND    CLASSIFICATION    OF   THE 

ELEMENTS. 

169.  The  following  recapitulation  and  classifica- 
tion of  the  materials  which  enter  into  the  structure 
of  a  sentence,  will  serve  to  prepare  the  learnei  for 
tlie  two  succeeding  chapters. 


ANALYSIS     ij£    SENTENCES.  SI 

170.  The  first  and  most  ^nportaut  element  is 
the  substantive. 

(a.)  The  term  substantive  is  here  used  to  denote  the  noun^  or 
any  word  which  takes  the  pLace  of  the  noun. 

171.  The  substantive  performs  three  distinct 
offices  in  the  structure  of  sentences.  —  Isi.  It  may 
be  used  as  the  subject.  (33.)  —  2d.  It  may  be  used  as 
an  attribute,  either  predicated  or  assumed.  (16, ;  60  ; 
104,  b]  106.)  —  3d.  It  may  be  used  as  the  object. 
(117,  119.) 

172.  The  verb,  considered  apart  from  the  attri- 
bute, (24.  note,)  performs  the  important  function 
of  connectiiTg  the  attribute  to  the  subject.  (16,  17.) 

173.  The  adjective  (including  the  participle, 
which  is  only  a  species  of  adjective)  is  used  to 
denote  a  property  of  the  substantive,  either  predi- 
cated (36,  b.)  or  assumed.  (16,  «.)     • 

174.  The  adverb  is  used  to  denote  some  circum- 
stance or  property  of  an  action  or  quality. 

(a.)  An  adverb  is  used  to  denote  some  property  of  an  attribute, 
and  is  to  an  attribute  what  an  attribute  is  to  a  substantive  ;  as, 
•'  He  ran  swiftly  "  =  "  His  running  is  swift ;  "  "  She  writes  beautt' 
fully  "  =  "  Her  writing  is  beautiful." 

(&.)  Modal  adverbs  are  to  be  excepted,  since  they  modify  the 
assertion,  that  is,  the  copula,  and  not  the  attribute. 

175.  The  conjunction  performs  the  important 
office  of  connecting  the  various  elements. 

Note.    Interjections  are  not  elements. 

176.  Strictly  speaking,  all  sentences  may  be 
said  to  be  composed  ^f  three  kinds  of  materials, 
namely,  substantives,  adjectives,  and  adverbs  ;  the  cop- 
ula, and  all  other  merely  connective  Avords,  forming 


82  ANALYSIS    OF     iSfcNTENCEi. 

no  part  of  the  substance  of  the  sentence,  but  serv- 
ing only  to  unite  these  materials  into  one  structure 

EXAMPLES. 

I.  The  substantive,  used  a.3^  <  9,    Attrihntp'<    '  ^ 

'  )  ^-  -^"^1^"^®  '  {  2.  Modifier.* 
^3.  Object. 

II    The  adjective.,  used  as  ....  AiiribuXe  I  \    '  ''     ' 

^  '  M  2,  Modifier.* 

III.  The  adverb^ .  .  used  as  ...  . .  .  .  Modifier. 

177.  These  materials,  arranged  in  a  general 
formula  for  a  sentence,  stand  thus :  — 

Adj.  Ele.       +       Sub.       :   :       Pred.     +      Obj.  Ele.  +  Adv.  Eie 

Substantive.  }  substantive.  \  Substantive.  )  Substantive.  Adverb. 
Adjective.f   )  i  Adjective.f    S 

Exercise  29. 

Analyze  and  parse  the  foUotving  miscellaneous 
examples.  Tell  the  ojjice  of  each  substantive,  [noun 
or  pronoun^  \^7l])  —  of  each  adjective,  [adjective 
and  participle,  173.) 

\-  We  have  learned  our  lessons.  Joseph  was  sold.  You 
might  have  crossed  the  stream.  He  will  sell  some  figs. 
She  should  have  been  studying  her  lesson.  The  earl  ia 
our  guest.  Be  sober.  Live  contentedly.  Break  not  yoa» 
promise.  Be  thou  a  scholar.  Be  firm.  Do  be  quiet 
The  soldiers  must  have  been  drilled.  The  ship  ploughs 
the  sea.  The  emperor  Antoninus  wrote  an  excellent  book. 
Edward  the  Confessor  abused  his  mother.  Queen  Chris- 
tina resigned  her  crown.     Edward  the  Black  Prince  worf 

*  An  assumed  attribute  is  a  modifier,         t  See  H  173. 


ANALYSIS    OF     SKNTENCEB. 


F3 


black  armor.  1  am,  dear  sir,  your  affectionate  friend. 
My  son,  give  me  thy  heart.  The  earth  and  the  moon  are 
planets.  The  creation  demonstrates  God's  power  and 
wisdom.  Anarchy  and  confusion,  poverty  and  distress, 
follow  a  civil  war.     Avoid  arrogance  and  servility 

The  verdant  lawn,  the  shady  grove,  the  variegaied 
landscape,  the  boundless  ocean,  and  the  starry  firmament, 
are  beautiful  and  magnificent  objects.  True  religion  gives 
our  behavior  a  native  and  unaffected  ease.  Plain,  honest 
truth  wants  no  artificial  coloring.  Wise  and  good  men  are 
frequently  unsuccessful.  True  worth  is  modest  and  retir- 
ing. Ulysses  was  a  wise,  eloquent,  cautious,  and  intrepid 
hero.  Good  nature  mends  and  beautifies  all  objects.  The 
liberal  arts  soften  and  harmonize  the  temper.  A  philoso- 
pher should  examine  every  thing  coolly,  impartially,  accu- 
rately, and  rationally.  I  shall  go  myself,  or  send  some 
one.  He  is  not  sick,  but  discouraged.  She  sings,  as  well 
as  plays.  He  has  caught  a  pike  or  a  perch.  O,  how  cold 
it  is  !  His  fate,  alas  !  was  deplorable.  Coming  events  cast 
their  shadows  before. 

Complete  the  following  sentences  by  writing  answers 
to  the  questions  in  parentheses :  — 

(How  many  ?)     (What  kind.?)  birds  fly  (How?) 

(Whose?)    dog   caught   (What.?)     (When.?) (How 

many?)    fishes   were   caught    (When?) (Which?) 

horse      kicked      (Whom?)       (How?)       (When?) 

(What  ?)  tree  stands  (Where  : ) (How  many  ?;  men 

drove  ( Who  m  ? )     ( How  ? ) 

Model.     Ten  black  birds  fly  siciftly. 


84 


AJNALYSIS     OF     SENTENCES. 


CHAPTER   II. 

(simple  sentences.) 
fclLEMENTS  OF  THE  SECOND   CLASS. -PHRASES 


SECTION    I. 
NATURE    OF   ELEMENTS    OF   THE    SECOND   CLASS 

178.  An  element  of  the  second  class  is  an  in  fin- 
'i'ive  or  a  preposjtioi]  and  its  object.  These,  taken  as 
a  phrase,  form,  like  an  element  of  the  first  class, 
a  constituent  part  of  the  sentence  ;  as,  '^  to  haste  :  " 
'•'  of  Boston  ;  "  "  in  reading." 

NurK       The  term  pkr as p  is  properh'   used   to  denote  any  com 
bination  of  words  which  docs  not  form  a  proposition.     Hence, 
complex    or    compound    elen>ent  of  the    first   class    is  a  phrase 
But,  in  this  work,  the  term  will  be  used  more  particularly  to  de- 
note an  element  of  the  second  class. 

(//.)  In  an  element  of  the  second  class,  both  the  idea  and  its 
rclatio7i  (\l,  b.)  diVe.  represented  by  separate  words;  w^hereas,  in 
an  element  of  the  first  class,  the  idea  only  is  represented  ;  the 
relation  must  be  supplied  by  the  mind  ;  as,  "  horses  of  Mex- 
ico"  ==*  ^'- Mexican  horses."  Hence  an  element  of  the -second 
class  may  be  considered  as  the  expansion  of  a  corresponding  ele- 
ment of  the  first. 

(6.)    An  element  of  the  first  class  may  be  changed  to  one  of 

*  In  the  subsequent  parts  of  this  work,  it  will  often  be  neces- 
sary to  represent  equivalent  expressions.  For  this  purpose  the 
eign  of  equality  (=)  will  be  used. 


ANALYSIS    OF     SENTENCES.  85 

tlie  second,  or  an  element  of  the  second  to  one  of  the  first,  by 
introducing  or  suppressing  the  exponent  of  the  relation,  making, 
of  course,  the  requisite  change  of  form  ;  as,  "  a  virtuous  man  "=- 
'a  man  of  virtue'"  "the  temple  of  Solomon''  =  '■'■  Solomon  s 
temple." 

\.  — COMPONENT  PARTS   OF   THE   PHRASE. 

179.  The  'preposition  is  a  connective  used  to 
join  a  noun  or  pronoun  to  the  word  or  phrase  on 
which  it  depends.  The  noun  or  pronoun  is  called 
the  object  of  the  preposition. 

180.  Prepositions  are  used  to  denote  the  various 
relations  of  time^  place,  cause,  manner,  possession,  ^c. 

Note.     For  a  list  of  prepositions,  see  Appendix,  Lesson  XIll. 

181.  The  use  of  the  preposition  may  be  ex- 
pressed by  the  following  rule  :  — 

Rule  XIII.  A  preposition  is  used  to  show 
the  relation  of  its  object  to  the  preceding  word 
on  which  the  object  depends;  as,  "George 
ivent  into  the  garden y 

182.  The  following  is  the  rule  for  the  object :  — 

Rule  XIV.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to 
complete  the  relation  of  a  preposition,  must  be 
in  the  objective  case ;  as,  "  Thej  gathered 
around  /?m." 

183.  There  is  another  species  of  phrase,  of  a 
v^erbal  nature,  which  belongs  to  th-^  second  class  of 
elements;  as,  "/or  complaining:''  ''He  was  guilty 
of  stealing.'''' 

8 


^)^v> 


86  ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES. 

184.  Of  this  species  there  are  two  varieties ;  — 
(a.)  The  preposition  and  present  participle  ;  as, 

"  for  reading  ;  "  — 

(b.)  The  preposition  and  perfect  participle;  as, 
*'for  having  read." 

185.  The  participle,  thus  used,  is  called  a  parti- 
cipial noun,  and  is  disposed  of  by  Rule  XIV. 

(  a.)  Verbal  or  participial  nouns  are  formed  from  predicates  by 
removing  the  copula.  They  belong  to  the  second  class  of  ele- 
ments only  when  they  follow  prepositions. 

EXAMPLES. 

Boys  write writing in  writing. 

Boys  are  active  ....  being  active  .  .  ,  .  in  beijig  active. 
Boys  are  scholars .  .  .  being  scholars .  .  ,  in  being  scholars. 

Note.  When  the  attribute  of  the  predicate  is  an  adjective  or 
noun,  the  participle  of  the  copula  must  be  joined  to  it,  to  form  the 
ferbal  noun. 

(b.)  The  forms  "  writing,"  "being  active,"  "being  scholars," 
may  be  used  as  nouns  in  any  relation,  and  therefore,  in  many 
respects,  resemble  the  infinitive.  They  may  perform  the  office 
which  their  position  in  the  sentence  (as  subject,  attribute,  or  oh' 
ject)  requires,  and,  at  the  same  time,  may  receive  the  same  madi- 
fications  which  they  would  have  received  had  they  been  complete 
predicates. 

(c.)  Hence  a  verbal  noun  may  be  modified  first  as  a  noun,  and 
secondly  as  a  verb;  as,  "  I  did  not  know  oF  his  understanding 
the  Greek." 

(d.)  In  the  sentence,  "  I  was  not  aware  of  his  being  the  judge 
of  the  Supreme  Court,"  the  form  "being  judge"  is  limited  by 
"his,"  and  is  the  object  of  "of;"  yet  "judge"  retains  ics 
character  as  predicate-nominative,  and  is  limited  just  as  it  would 
have  been  had  the  sentence  stood,  "He  is  judge  of  the  Supremo 
Court." 

186.  The  infinitive  is  a  peculiar  form,  partici- 
pating   the   properties  of  a   noun   and   verb,  anH 


A.NALYSI3  OF  SENTENCES.  87 

when  used  to  modify  other  words,  should  be  parsed 
by  the  follcwiug  rule  :  — 

Rule  XV  The  mfinitive  depends  upon 
the  word  whicti  it  limits  ;  as,  "  We  loent  to 
see  you." 

( a.)  Since  the  infinitive  partakes  of  the  properties  of  a  noun 
and  a  verb,  it  has  the  construction  of  both,  and  may  be  used  as 
subject,  attribute,  or  object. 

(b.)  The  infinitive  differs  from  the  substantive  in  the  follow- 
ing respects  :  —  All  words  used  to  limit  the  infinitive  are  such  aa 
liaiit  the  verb.  Like  the  verb,  it  may,  by  a  change  of  form,  de- 
note  the  continuance,  completion,  or  the  time,  of  an  action ;  as, 
"  to  write  ;  "  "  to  be  writing ;  "  "  to  have  written  ;  "  "  to  have  been 
writing." 

(  c.)  It  resembles  the  preposition  and  its  object  in  the  following 
respects:  —  It  consists  of  two  parts,  —  some  form  of  the  verb, 
and  the  particle  "to,"  which,  in  some  respects,  is  like  a  preposi- 
tion. The  "to"  seems,  like  the  preposition,  to  perform  the 
office  of  a  connective,  as  may  be  seen  by  omitting  it  in  the  fol- 
lowing examples;  as,  "I  love  ...  write ; "  "We  began... 
consider." 

(d.)  The  infinitive  differs  from  the  preposition  and  its  ob 
ect  m  the  following  particulars:  —  The  "to"  is  the  only 
preposition  used  with  the  verb.  Tiie  infinitive  may  be  used  as 
the  subject ;  whereas  the  single  phrase  is  seldom,  if  ever,  so 
Used.  The  two  parts  of  the  infinitive  are  never  separated  by 
intervening  words.  The  two  parts  of  the  infinitive  are  taken 
togethtf,  and,  thus  combined,  may  become  a  noun  in  any  re- 
lation. 

n.—  THE  PHRASE   CONSIDERED  AS  A    WHOLE, 

187.  Thus  far,  the  phrase  has  been  considered 
in  reference  to  its  component  parts.  It  must  now 
be  regarded  as  a  combination,  forming,  like  a  single 
word,  a  distinct  element  of  the  sentence. 


88 


ANALYSi'i     OF     SENTEISICES 


(«  )    Tin    phrase,  it  will  be  seen,  has  a  clou)^'e  co.  .siructioti  ;  • 
1st.    Eacli  word,  excepting  those  of  the  io*'.nitive,  has  a  con- 
struction of  its  own. 

xid.    As  a  lokolc^  it  forms  one  of  the  constituent  elements  of  a 

gcntence. 

1 88.  The  phrase  may  be  used  to  form  either  of 
the  Vyo  principal^  or  of  the  three  nubordinatc  ele- 
ments, (8;)  and,  since  the  materials  of  whicli  any 
sentence  is  composed  (setting  aside  connectives) 
are  the  substantive,  the  adjective,  and  the  adverb, 
(176,)  the  phrase,  in  some  of  its  varieties,  must 
take  the  place  of  each  of  these  parts  of  speech. 
Hence, 

189.  Phrases  are  divided  into  substantive,  adjec^ 
tive,  and  adverbial,  according  to  the  office  which 
they  perform  in  the  sentence. 

(a.)  No  one  sentence,  perhaps,  in  the  language  is  v/holly  com 
posed  of  phrases.  Yet  phrases,  mingled  with  other  forms,  uiaj 
be  used  to  constitute  either  of  the  five  elements  of  a  sentence. 


X 


SECTION    II. 

THE    PHRASE    USED    AS    A    PRINCIPAL    ELEMENT. 

190.  When  a  phrase  is  used  to  form  either  the 
subject  or  the  jiredicate  of  a  proposition,  it  becomes 
a  principal  element  of  the  second  class. 

I.— THE    SUBJECT. 

191.  The  form  most  commonly  used  for  the 
subject,  is  the  infinitive ;  as,  "  To  see  the  sun  i? 
pleasant ;  "   "  To  deceive  is  criminal." 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  89 

1  fl  Since  the  infinitive  is  a  kind  of  abstract 
noun,  it  is  used  to  name  an  action  when  separated 
from  its  subject. 

(a.)  The  infinitive  bears  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  class  of 
nouns  called  abstract ;  as,  ^■^  generosity  "  from  ^^  generous  "  [man  ;] 
BO  "fo  write,"  from  [men]  ^^  write." 

193.  Although  the  infinitive  expresses  an  action 
abstractly,  it  is  often  necessary  to  connect  it  with 
a  subject  or  agent  of  the  action  ;  as,  "  For  you  to 
deceive  is  highly  criminal." 

(a.)  In  this  example,  "  you  "  is  the  subject  of  "  to  deceive  ;  " 
and  the  whole  phrase,  '-  for  you  to  deceive,"  is  the  subject  of  the 
proposition. 

(  h.)  An  abstract  noun  may,  in  like  manner,  be  connected  with 
tne  person  or  thing  from  which  the  quality  is  abstracted ;  as,  "  a 
generous  man'  ="a  man  of  generosity  "  In  either  case,  the 
quality  *'  generous  "  or  "  of  generosity  "  is  attached  to  "  man." 

194.  When  the  infinitive  is  used  in  its  most 
general  sense,  as  the  subject  of  a  proposition,  the 
simple  form  only  is  used ;  as,  "  To  steal  is  base  ;  " 
but  when  it  has  a  subject  of  its  own,  that  subject 
must  be  in  the  objective  case,  following  the  prepo- 
sition/or;  as,  ''For  him  to  steal  is  base." 

(a.)  To  change  the  infinitive  to  an  element  of  the  first  class, 
substitute  for  it  the  participial  noun,  when  the  infinitive  has  no 
subject;  but  when  it  has  a  subject  of  its  own,  prefix  to  the  parti- 
cipial noun  the  possessive  case  of  the  subject ;  as,  "  To  lie  ia 
wicked  "  =  "  Lying  is  wicked ;  "  "  For  him  to  lie  is  wicked  "  =r- 
"  His  lying  is  wicked." 

195.  A  complex  phrase,  formed  by  uniting  two 
prepositions  and  their  objects,  is  sometimes  used 
to  denote  a  given  time  or  space,  and  may  become 
vhe  subject  of  a  proposition :  as,  "  From  momiv^ 
to  night  is  called  day.' 

8* 


90  ANALVSiS    OJb'     SENTENCES. 

(a.)  Tlie  simple  phrase,  ciMisisting  of  the  preposition  and 
object^  seldom,  if  ever,  becomes  the  subject  of  a  proposition. 

196.  By  a  peculiar  idiom  of  the  language,  the 
infinitive  or  other  phrase,  when  used  as  a  subject. 
is  first  represented  by  "  it "  standing  at  the  head  of 
the  sentence,  and  is  itself  placed  after  the  predicate  ; 
as,  "  It  is  pleasant  to  see  the  sun  ;  "  "  It  is  criminal 
to  deceive.^'' 

(a.)  "  It,"  thus  used,  or  "there,"  as  in  Ti  35,  (b.)  is  said  to  be  an 
expletive,  because  it  fills  a  vacancy,  and  yet  is  not  absolutely 
necessary  to  the  sense.  It  often  gives  force  and  beauty  to  an 
expression,  by  enabling  us  to  place  emphasis  on  a  word  which 
otherwise  must  occupy  an  unfavorable  position  in  the  sentence  ; 
as,  "  He  did  not  do  it ;  "  "  It  was  not  he  that  did  it." 

197.  A  phrase  used  as  a  substantive  is  always 
of  the  third  'person,  singular  number ,  neuter  gender, 

Models  for  Analyzing  and  Parsing 

To  steal  is  base. 

It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  contains  but  one 

proposition. 
To  steal  is  the  subject,  because  it   is   that  of  which   the 

quality  (36,  b.)  "  base"  is  affirmed.     It  is  a  pr:n- 

cipal  element  of  the  second  class. 
Is  hose .  is  the  predicate,  because  it  is  the  quality  affirmed 

of  "  to  steal."     "  Is  "  is  the  verb,  and  '*  base  "  is 

the  attribute. 
To  steal  is  a  verb,  (principal  parts,  steal,  stole,  stolen,)  in 

liie  infinitive  mode,  present  tense,  and  is  used  as  a 

noun,  (third    pers.,  sing,  num.,   neut.    gen.,   and 

nom.  case,)  in  the  i elation  of  subject ;  according 

to  Rule  I. 


ANALYSIS    OF     SENTENCES.  91 


It  is  easy  to  he  deceived. 

It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  contains  but  one 

proposition. 

To  le  deceived  is  the  subject,  and  is  represented  by  the 
expletive  •"  it." 

Is  easy is  the  predicate. 

To  he  deceived  is  a  regular  passive  verb,  (principal  parts, 
deceive^  deceived^  deceived,)  in  the  infinitive 
mode,  present  tense,  and  is  used  as  a  noun, 
in  the  relation  of  subject;  according  to 
Rule  I. 

It is  a  personal  pronoun,  representing  "  to  be 

deceived ; "  of  the  third  person,  singular 
number,  neuter  gender,  and  nominative 
case,  and  is  an  expletive  used  simply  to  in* 
troduce  the  sentence  in  a  particular  wav 

Exercise  30. 

Analyze  the  following  propositions,  and  parse  the 
infinitives :  — 

To  be  good  is  to  be  happy.  To  err  is  human.  To  for- 
give is  divine.  To  obey  is  to  enjoy.  '  To  write  the  same 
things  is  not  grievous.  \To  swear  is  wicked.  For  you  to 
cheat  is  surprising.  To  see  the  sun  is  pleasant.  ■  To  ac- 
quire knowledge  is  necessary.  For  American  citizens  to 
be  educated  is  essential.  To  conceal  the  truth  is  often 
highly  criminal.  To  repent  is  our  duty. 
\  it  is  easy  to  deceive  children.)  It  is  wrong  to  excite 
false  hopes.  It  is  base  for  one  to  betray  his  country.  V 
is  necessary  to  write.  It  is  pleasant  to  receive  our  fr  ends. 
It  5s  wror.e^  to  hate  our  enemies. 


92 


anajL.Y31s   of   sentences. 


Write  p.  dicates  to  the  following  infinitives  used  as 
subjects :  — 

To  be  idle;  to  Ubor ;  to  write;  to  cheat;  to  love  our 
(enemies  ;  to  disobey  our  parents ;  to  study  ;  to  sing ;  to 
play  ;  to  laugh  ;  to  0})en  ;  to  swim. 

Model.     To  be  idle  is  criminal. 

Write  infinitives  as  subjects  to  the  following  pred- 
icates, the  sentence  being  introduced  by  "  it."  / 

It  is  easy.  It  is  contemptible.  It  is  enough.  It  is  difli- 
cult.  It  is  wrong.  It  pleased  him.  It  encourages  a  child. 
It  is  nnportant.  It  is  favorable.  It  dignifies  humanity. 
It  is  necessary.  It  disgusts  one.  It  is  pleasant.  It  is  but 
just. 

Model.     It  is  easy  to  ivrite  a  lesson. 

Change  any  tivelve  of  the  above  examples,  introduced 
by  "  it,"  to  equivalent  seritences,  in  which  the  infinitive 
shall  stand  at  the  head. 

Model.      To  deceive  children  is  easy. 

Change  twelve  of  the  above  examples,  beginning  with 
the  infinitive,  to  equivalent  forms  introduced  by  "  it." 
Model.     It  is  human  to  err. 

Change  the  infinitives  in  any  twelve  of  the  fore- 
going  examples  to  participial  nouns  (194,  a.)  used  as 
mbjccts. 

Model.     Acquiring  knowledge  is  necessary. 

n.—  THE    PREDICATE. 

198.  There  are  two  forms  of  the  phrase  used 
as  predicate,  —  the  substantive,  and  the  adjective, 
(36,  b.  c,  189.) 


ANALYSIS    OF     SENTENCES.  93 

199.    The  infinitive,  when  used  as  predicate,  de 
noteS;  — 

(rt.)  An  equivalent  term  or  expression;  as,  "  To 
obey  is  to  enjoy  ;  "  — 

{b.)  Wliat  is  possible,  or  obligatory;  as,  "The 
passage  is  to  be  found ;^'  "Our  rights  are  to  be 
nspected  ;  "  — 

(c.)  What  is  settled^  or  determined  upon ;  as,  "  The 
ship  is  to  sail  next  week." 

2(J0.  When  the  phrase  used  as  predicate  con- 
sists of  a  preposition  and  its  object,  it  is  equivalent 
to  an  adjective,  and,  Uke  the  predicate-adjective,  de- 
notes some  property  or  circumstance  of  the  stibject ; 
a3,  "  George  is  icithout  a  penny  "  z=:  "  George  is  pen- 
niless ;  "  "  He  is  at  dinner  ^=  dining  ;  "  "  He  is 
in  health  zzzwelV^ 

Models  for  Analyzing  and  Parsing. 

Our  honor  is  to  be  maintained. 

\\  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  contains  but  one 

proposition. 

Honor is  the  subject,  because,  &c. 

Is  to  he  maintained  is  the  predicate,  because.  &c. 

I'he  subject,  honor^  is  limited  by  "  our,'"  ar   adjective  ele 

ment  of  the  first  class ,  denoting  whose 
honor. 

The  predicate    ...  is  not  limited ;   it  denotes  what  ouglU 

to  be.  *'Is"  is.the  copul. ,  and  "  to  be 
maintained  "  is  the  attrib  jle. 

Tb  he  maintained  .  is   a   regular    passive   >erb,    infinitive 

mode,  present  tense,  and  is  used  as  a 
noun  in  the  relation  of  predicate  ;  ac- 
cording to  Rule  II 


94  ANALYSIS    OF     SENTENCES. 

He  is  without  fear. 

Note,     Analyze  as  above. 

Is  without  fear,  the  predicate,  denotes  a  state  of  the  sub. 
ject.  "  Is "  is  the  copula,  and  '  withoul 
fear"  is  the  attribute;  it  is  equivalent 
to  fearless,  and  relates  to  the  subject ;  ac- 
cording to  Rule  III. 

WithoiU  ....  IS  a  preposition,  and  shows  the  relation  of 
"  fear"  to  "  he  ; "  according  to  Rule  XIII. 

Fear is  a  common  noun,  &c.,  and  objective  case, 

and  is  used  to  complete  the  relation  denoted 
by  "  without;  "  according  to  Rule  XIV. 

Exercise  31. 

Analyze  tft»  following  propositions,  and  par^e  the 
•predicates :  — 

His  nephew  is  to  be  educated.  The  captive  is  to  be 
released.  The  work  is  to  be  competed.  George  was  in 
fault.  The  slanderer  is  beneath  contempt.  The  child 
was  in  ecstasy.  The  general  is  in  fine  health.  The  pas- 
sage IS  to  be  found.  The  watchmen  are  on  their  guard. 
He  is  at  supper.  The  patient  is  in  distress.  Our  word  is 
not  to  be  broken.  The  trees  are  in  blossom.  The  pris- 
oner is  without  friends.  The  gentleman's  character  is 
aboN  e  suspicion.     My  brother  is  in  excellent  spirits. 

Write  ten  sentences y  having  a  phrase  for  the  pred- 
icate. 

Change  the  predicates  in  the  foregoing  examples 
to  elements  of  the  frst  class. 

Model.     His  nephew  must  be  educated.     George  was 
culpable.  > 


ANALYSIS    OF     SENTENCES.  95 

SECTIC  N   III. 

THE    PHRASE    USED   AS   THE    ADJECTIVE    ELEMENT. 

201.  When  the  phrase  is  used  to  effect  either 
of  the  purpose-s  mentioned  in  H  96,  (a.  h.  c.  d.)  it  is 
called  an  adjective  element  of  the  second  class. 

202.  (Quality  is  denoted  by  an  abstract  noun 
formed  from  an  adjective  of  quality,  and  is  con- 
nected with  the  subject  by  the  preposition  of;  as, 
"  a  generous  man  "  ^=:  "  a  man  of  generosity.'''' 

203.  CArcumstance  is  indicated  by  some  noun 
denoting  place,  time,  cause,  source,  or  manner,  con- 
nected by  of  or  any  other  preposition  which 
may  show  its  true  relation  to  the  subject ;  as,  "  an 
Arabian  horse  "  =r  "  a  horse  of  [or /row]  Arabia  ;  " 
"a  morning  walk  "  =  "  a  walk  in  the  morning ;^^ 
"  a  brazen  kettle  "  =:  *'  a  kettle  of  brass ;  "  "  a  hasty 
preparation  "  ::=  "  a  preparation  in  haste.^^ 

204.  To  identify  a  common  noun,  we  often 
connect  with  it  by  of  its  proper  name  ;  as,  "  the 
city  of  i?05^o?i "  —  "  the  city  Boston.^''  The  infin- 
itive is  often  used  for  a  similar  purpose  ;  as,  "  A 
desire  to  assist  you  prompted  the  proposal." 

205.  Possession  is  denoted  by  of  which  shows 
tlie  relation  of  the  possessor  to  the  object  possessed; 
as,  *'  the  estate  of  my  father  "  —  "  my  father's  estate." 

(a.)  It  will  readily  be  seen, that  the  preposition  of  is  proper- 
ly the  connective  of  the  adjective  phrase.  For  the  purpose  of  con- 
venient reference,  its  principal  uses  are  here  brought  togeUier-  — 

'  1.)    It  sho'f  s  the  relation  of  a  quality  to  the  object  to  which  it 


96  ANALYSIS    OF     SENTENCES- 

belongs;  as,  "a  man  of  virtue"  =  ^^  a,  virtuous  man."  (2.)  It 
shows  the  relation  of  an  effect  to  the  cmise  or  agent ,  as,  "the 
temple  o/5L»/o?n,ou  "  =  "  Solomon's  temple."  (3.)  It  shows  the 
relation  of  a  material  to  tiie  thing  made  of  it;  as,  "a  vessel  oj 
brass"  =  ^^  Q.  brazen  vessel."  (4.)  It  shows  the  relation  of  a 
whole  to  some  of  its  parts  ;  as,  "  the  top  of  a  £ree"  =  "  the  IreC' 
top."  (5.)  It  denotes  the  relation  o? persons ;  as,  "the  brother 
of  Samuel  "='''  Samuel's  brother."  (6.)  It  denotes  the  relation 
of  a  possessor  to  the  object  possessed  ;  as,  "  the  estate  of  my 
father"  =  '•'■  my  father's  esi^ie"  (7.)  It  denotes  the  relation  of 
a  proper  Jiame  to  a  common  name  denoting  the  same  thing ;  as, 
"the  city  of  Boston"  =  ^nhe  city  Boston."  (8.)  It  shows  the 
relation  of  some  circumstance  of  time  or  place  ;  as,  "  the  moun- 
tains o/ 3fexico  "="  the  Mexican  mountains;"  "the  report  of 
last  year  "  =  "  last  year's  report." 

(6.)  In  many  of  these  cases,  some  word  is  understood  ;  as,  "a 
vfdiXk  talien  in  the  morning;"  "a  honse  situated  on  the  moun- 
tain ;  "  "  imprisonment  suffered  for  debt ;  "  "  a  heavy  loss  caused 
by  fire." 

(c.)  ^hc  participial  noun  is  often  used  to  limit  a  noun,  aa» 
"The  hope  of  receiving  a  reward  stimulated  him." 

Models  for  Analyzing  and  Parsing. 
The  brother  of  Richard  I.  usurped  the  throne. 

It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  contains  but  one 

proposition. 

Brother is  the  subject. 

Usurped is  the  predicate. 

The  subject,  hrother,  is  limited  by  the  phrase  "  of  Rich- 
ard," an  adjective  element  of  the 
second  class,  denoting  the  family  re^ 
lation  of  "  brother  "  and  "  Richard ;  '** 
it  is  equivalent  to  "  Richard's."  "  Of" 
is  the  connective,  and  '■'■  Richard "  is 
the  object. 

Of  .  ,  ^ is  a  preposition,  and  shows  the  rela- 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  97 

tion  of  "  Richard  "  to  "  brother ; "  ac- 
cording to  Rule  XIII. 
Richard  ....,.,.  is  a  proper  noun,  of  the  third  person, 

singular  number,  masculine  gende/ 
objective  case,  and  completes  the  re- 
lation of  the  preposition  "  of , "  ac- 
cording to  Rule  XIV. 

His  attempt  to  rescue  his  friend  was  fatal  to 

himself. 
WoTE.     Analyze  as  in  the  last  example. 

Attempt^  the  subject,  is  limited  by  "  to  rescue,"  an  adjec- 
tive element  of  the  second  class,  used 
to  designate  the  attempt. 

!Zb  rescue is  a  verb,  (from  rescue,  rescued,  res- 
cued,) in  the  infinitive  mode,  present 
tense,  and  depends  upcn  "  attempts ; " 
according  to  Rule  XV. 


'& 


Exercise  32. 

Analyze  the  following  examples,  and  parse  the 
phrases :  — 

A  man  of  straw  was  prostrated.  1  The  dew  of  the  morn- 
ing has  passed  away,  The  liglit  of  the  moon  assisted  us. 
The  king  of  Morven  struck  his  breast.  The  temple  of 
Solomon  was  destroyed.  Time  to  come  is  called  futuro, 
A  desire  to  see  ye**  has  brought  me  here.  The  spirit  of 
Loda  shrieked.  The  joy  of  his  youth  was  great.  The 
city  of  Mexico  is  beautifully  situated.  The  hope  of  (he 
hypocrite  will  fail.  The  man  at  the  m.ast-head  doscried 
an  iceberg.  His  intention  to  resign  has  been  publicly  an- 
nounced. The  true  spirit  of  heroism  is  generous.  The 
brother  of  Henry   left   the   city,     A   man   of  honor  will 

9 


98  ANALYSIS     OF     SENTENCES. 

never  forsake  his  frieitds.r'  The  hope  of  heai'ing  from  you 

has  greatly  delighted  ^e.  "rj 

Write  sentences  limiting  the  subjects  by  th&  fallow- 
ing phrases  :  — 

Of  morning  ;  in  the  moon  ;  of  brass ;  of  generosity ; 
of  America  ;  of  virtue  ;  of  seeing  ;  of  doing ;  of  wood , 
of  Europe  ;  on  board ;  of  the  house  ;  of  friends ;  of  home* 

Model.     The  dawn  of  morning  found  Waverley  on  the 
esplanade. 

Change  any  twelve  of  the  adjective  elements  in  the 
-preceding  examples  into  equivalent  forms  of  the  first 
class. 

Model.     The  morning  dew  has  passed  away. 

IVrite  sentences  of  your  own,  limiting  the  subjects 
by  the  folloiuing  adjective  elements ;  then  change  them 
to  the  second  class. 

Evening,  virtuous,  David's,  Solomon's,  generous,  honor- 
able, penniless,  comfortless,  coming,  breathless,  prosperous 
experienced,  deformed,  wise,  country,  morning. 

Model.     An  evening   walk  is   agreeable  rr:  A  walk  ai 
evening  is  agi'eeable. 


SECTION    IV. 

THE   PHRASE   USED   AS   THE   OBJECTIVE   ELEMENT 

l.  — SINGLE   OBJECT. 

206.    When  the  phrase  is  used  to  complete  the 
neaning  of  a  verb,  either  as  direct  or  wdirect  object. 


ANALYSIS     JF     SENTENCES  99 

It  is  called  an  objective  element  of  the  second  class , 
as,  ''  I  desire  to  speak ;  "  "I  spoke  of  him.''^ 

207.  The  only  form  used  as  the  direct  object 
of  a  transitive  verb  is  the  infinitive ;  as,  "  We  in- 
tend (What?)  to  leave  to-day;"  "They  tried 
(What?)  to  conceal  their  fears." 

208.  The  infinitive  is  used  to  complete  the 
moaning  of  verbs  which  do  not  take  a  substantive 
8,s  an  object ;  as,  "  He  seemed  to  revive.^' 

(tt.)  The  infinitive  is  often  used  to  complete  the  meaning  <rf 
adjectives;  as,  "The  pupils  are  anxious  to  learn.^^ 

(b.)  The  verbs  and  adjectives  which  are  followed  by  the  infin- 
itive, are  commonly  such  as  refer  to  some  operation  of  the  mind ; 
as,  desire^  desirous ;  emulate^  emulous. 

209.  The  infinitive  has  two  distinct  uses  as  a 
modifier  of  the  prec  icate.  It  may  be  used  as  a 
complement  of  a  verb  or  adjective  ;  or  it  may  de- 
note a  purpose;  as,  "  We  went  (Why?)  to  visit  our 
friends." 

(a.)  The  latter  is  an  adverbial  relation,  and  will  be  consid- 
ered in»  another  place. 

Ih  — DOUBLE  OBJECT. 

Persoiial  Object  with  an  Infinitive. 

210c  A  class  of  verbs,  in  addition  to  those  men- 
tioned in  IT  122,  (b.)  take  an  object  denoting  some 
person,  (sometimes  a  thing,)  and  an  infinitive  used 
as  an  attribute  of  it,  (120.)  as,  ''He  urged  me  to 


go." 


( a  )    The  first  object  should  be  regarded  as  the  subject  of  tlm 


iOO  ANA  LV  SIS     v5K     S  F,  NT  ENC  ES, 

infinitive.    {\22^  <l.)     1'liia  construction  resembles  the  accusative 
-twith  the  infinitive  in  the  Latin  and   Greek. 

(b.)  The  subject  of  the  infinitive  must  be  a  different  person 
from  the  subject  of  the  principal  verb  ;  otherwise  the  first  objeci 
is  omitted  j  as,  "  /  wish  you  to  go ;  "    "1  wish  to  go." 

211.  When  siicli  verbs  assume  the  passive  form, 
the  first  or  personal  object  becomes  the  subject, 
and  the  infinitive  reniams  in  the  predicate,  (122;; 
as,  ^'  They  made  the  man  labor ;  "  "  The  man  was 
made  to  labor.''' 

212-  The  infinitive  takes  the  place  of  the  di- 
r-'  '^  object  after  certain  verbs,  (123,)  and  has,  at 
the  same  time,  the  indnect  object  for  its  subject  ; 
as,  "  He  taught  me  to  write ; "  "  /  was  taught  to 
write,^^  *  Compare  with  the  preceding,  '*  He 
taught  me  ivriting,''  (185,  a  )  or  "Writing  was 
taught  me  ; "  "I  was  taughi  writing.''' 

213.  The  to  of  the  infinitive  is  omitted  after 
the  active  voice  ol  hid^  dare^  let,  make.,  hear,  need, 
feel,  see ;  as,  ''I  hoard  him  say  it." 

(a.)  After  the  passive  form  of  these  verbs,  the  to  is  gener- 
ally expressed;   as,  "He  was  heard  io  say  it." 

Direct  and  Indirect  Object. 

214.  The  indirect  object  cannot  always  be  ex- 
pressed by  a  single  word.  ( 123. )  It  often  requires 
a  preposition  to  show  its  relation  to  the  predicate, 
especially  if  the  direct  object  is  placed  next  the 
verb ;  as,  "  George  gave  a  book  to  7?2e." 

\ 

*  V/riting  and  to  icrite  (124,  a.)  may  be  considered  as  the 
object  after  the  passive  icas  taught. 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTKNCES.  101 

(a.)    The  indirect  object,  ollen  shows  the  source  from  whicn  an 
action  tends,  the  material  out  of  which  any  thing  is  made,  or  the  . 
theme  of  conversation ;  as,  "  We  made  a  box  out  oftcood;  "  '•  He 
made   a  fire  of  coals;"  "They  begged  s.  favor  o/7/ie;""He 
spoke  of  a  reward," 

215.  Some  verbs  take  an  indirect  object  only  j 
as,  "  Charles  spoke  of  his  father^ 

(a.)  Such  verbs  ofleu  assume  the  passive  form  j  in  which 
case,  the  preposition  must  follow  the  passive  verb ;  as,  "  Hia 
father  was  spoken  of;  "  "  The  anchor  is  trusted  to." 

{I.)  It  is  not  always  easy  to  distinguish  an  indirect  object  from 
an  adverbial  circumstance.  The  general  rule  is  this  :  —  An  indi- 
rect object  denotes  the  tendency  of  an  action  to  or  from  some  ob- 
ject; whereas  an  adverbial  circumstance  denotes  the  place,  tivie^ 
cause,  or  manner,  of  an  action. 

216.  The  indirect  object  is  often  used  to  com- 
plete the  meaning  of  adjectives  which  denote  some 
state  of  the  mind,  or  are  derived  from  verbs  ;  as, 
"  The  general  was  desirous  of  glory  "  ==  ("  desired 
glory.") 

ExEP.risE  33. 

Analyze  the  folloioing  examples,  and  parse  the  In- 
finitives :  — 

They  began  to  sing.     The  boy  learnod  to  write.     1  did' 
not  expect  to  find  it.     The  children  love  to  play.     We 
hope  to  see  him.      The  ambassador  desired  to  have  aa 
interview. 

He  seemed  to  sleep.  We  ought  to  know.  The  sun 
appears  to  rise.  The  boy  v>'as  anxious  to  learn.  The 
student  was  ambitious  to  rise. 

I  exhorted  him  to  return.  Cadmus  taught  the  Greeks 
to  use  letters.  Let  us  sit.  (213.)  I  heard  him  speak.  We 
made  them  stop.     He  bade  me  go.     I  saw  him  fall.     The 

9* 


i02  ANALYSES     OF    SExNTENCKS. 

ofEcer  commanded  i!ie  soldit^rs  t'>  iiro.  We  told  theni  lo 
wait.  1  o'-dered  him  to  leave.  The  doves  besought  the 
hawk  to  defend  them.     Fingal  bade  his  sails  to  rise. 

Change  the  verbs  in  the  last  paragraph  to  the  pas-' 
nve  voice.     (211.) 

Model.     He  was  exhorted  to  return. 

M^rite  sentences  containing  the  following  predicates, 
and  limit  each  predicate  by  a  direct  and  an  indirect 
object,  placing  the  di:ect  object  first :  — 

Lend,  teach,  make,  bring,  throw,  give,  present,  write, 
buy,  ask,  play,  show,  deny,  refuse,  promise. 

Model.     I  lent  a  book  to  father. 

Re-write  these  examples^  and  place  the  indirect 
object  firsts  omitting  the  preposition. 

Model.     I  lent  father  a  book. 

Change  any  twelve  of  the  above  infinitives  to  par" 
ticipial  nouns. 

Model.     They  began  singhig. 


SECTION    V.        ^ 

THE    PHRASE    USED    AS    AN    ADVERBIAL    ELEMENT. 

217.  Whenever  the  phrase  is  used  to  limit  a 
verb  or  adjective  by  denoting  some  relation  o{ place, 
time,  cause,  or  manner,  it  is  called  an  adverbial  ele- 
ment of  the  second  class  ;  as,  "  T'he  messenger  came 
fro7n  Washington ;  "  "  We  left  on  Tuesday  ;  "  *^  lie 
vsiXi  for  fear  ;  "  "  You  wrote  in  haste.'' 


ANALYSIS     OF     SEJNTKNCES.  103 

i^  a.)  bince  the  phrase  denotes  an  adverbial  relation,  it  can 
often  be  changed  to  an  adverb.  So  also  the  adverb  may  oftcD 
be  changed  to  a  phrase.     (178,  b.) 

Model  for  Analyzing  and  Parsing. 

X  We  left  on  Tuesday. 

It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  contains  but  one 

proposition. 

We  ...  is  the  subject,  and 

Tjeft  ,  .  is  the  predicate,  both  principal  elements  of  the 
first  class. 

We  ...  is  not  limited. 

Left  .  is  limited  by  the  phrase  "  on  Tuesday,"  an  ad- 
verbial  element  of  the  second  class,  denoting  the 
time  of  leaving. 

O71  ...  is  a  preposition,  and  shows  the  relation  of  "  Tues- 
day "  to  "  leave ; "  according  to  Rule  XIII. 

Tuesday  is  a  noun,  6ic.,  and  completes  the  relation  of 
"  on ; "  according  to  Rule  XIV.  ^ 

l.—PHRASES  DENOTING  PLACE. 

218.  Pnrases,  like  adverbs  of  place,  (128,)  de- 
note three  relations,  —  ivhither^  whence^  where.  The 
first  two  refer  to  direction;  the  third,  to  locality, 

219.  Tendency  to  a  place  {IVhitherl)  is  indi- 
cated by  tOy  towards^  into,  up^  down,  and  sometimes 
for. 

( «..)  Tendency  in  a  vertical  direction  is  indicated  by  the  oppo- 
«ites  up  and  down;  in  a  horizontal  direction,  by  along,  if  it  has 
no  reference  to  a  limit;  by  tozcards,  if  it  only  approaches  a  limit  j 
oy  to^  if  it  reaches  it  j  and  by  into,  if  it  enters  it. 

220  Tendency  from  a  -pls-ce  (Mliencel)  is  de- 
noted hy  from,  out  of. 


i04  ANALYSIS     OF    SENTENCES. 

221-  Locality  { Where  1)  relates  to  the  diiierem 
dimension  of  space,  and  is  represented  by  the  oppo- 
siteSj  in,  out  of;  vjithin,  iciikout ;  before,  behind  or 
after;  over,  under;  abovCj  beneath  or  below;  on  ov 
upon,  underneath.  To  these  are  added,  at.,  near, 
round,  around,  about,  across,  along,  beside,   through* 

{^a.)  BeticcGii  and  bctioixt  denote  a  place  between  tico  positions, 
Among  anH  amidst  refer  to  several  positions. 

Exercise    34. 

Analyze  the  folloiving  propositions,  and  parse  the 
phrases :  — 

The  kangaroo  lives  in  New  Holland.  Burgoyne  sur- 
rendered at  Saratoga.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded 
at  Marseilles.  Napoleon  was  banished  to  St.  Helena. 
The  battle  was  fought  at  Vittoria.  The  church  stands 
beside  the  river.  Mesopotamia  was  situated  between  two 
rivers.  The  nuncio  came  from  Rome.  .  The  Israelites 
came  out  of  Egypt.  They  v/ent  to  Canaan.  We  sat  on 
the  sofa.  The  birds  flew  over  the  barn.  The  rabbits 
burrowed  under  the  tree.     We  sailed  around  the  island. 

Write  sentences  of  your  own,  limiting  the  predicates 
by  the  following  phrases  :  — 

Over  the  hill ;  on  the  ground ;  up  the  tree ;  to  New 
York  ;  from  Philadelphia  ;  through  the  air ;  on  the  steps ; 
toward  the  east ;  beside  the  wall ;  around  the  garden  ;  by 
Long  Island  ;  along  the  road ;  athwart  the  sky. 

Model.     The  horse  ran  over  the  hill. 

Change  the  following  adverbs  to  equivalent  2)hra3ei',_ 
and  apply  them  in  sentences  of  your  own :, — 


AJVALkSIS    OF     SENTENCES.  10*^ 

Here,  there,  hither,  thither,  hence,  thence,  eastward, 
Jvestward,  homev/ard,  somewhere,  nowhere,  everywhere, 
yonder. 

Model.     The  consul  resides  in  this  vlcice. 

Write  fifteen  sentences  limiting  the  predicates  by 
phrases  denoting  place  Let  five  refer  to  direction, 
and  ten  to  locality. 

IL  — PHRASES  DENOTING   TIME. 

222.  It  has  been  seen  (78,  a.  h.)  that  an  event 
may  relate  to  two  points  jf  time,  —  that  of  the 
speaker,  and  a  specified  time.  The  specified  time 
may  be  denoted  by  the  phrase. 

223.  Phrases,  like  adverbs,  may  refer  to  the 
'past^  present,  and  future;  but,  unlike  them,  may 
denote  three  relations  in  reference  to  each  of  these 
three  grand  divisions.     (78,  h.  c.) 

224.  Phrases  are  used  to  mark  the  time  of  an 
event  more  definitely.  They  may  denote  a  pointy 
2i  period,  ox  frequency  of  time,  and,  like  the  adverb, 
answer  the  questions,  Whenl  How  longl  How 
often  1 

(a.)  Frequency  is  generally  expressed  by  the  noun  times,  lim- 
ited by  some  numeral  denoting  the  number  of  repetitions ;  as, 
"  It  was  done  [for]  four  times."  Below  four  times,  the  adverb  is 
generally  used ;  as,  07ice,  ticice,  thrice. 

(i.)  The  preposition  is  often  omitted  in  phrases  denoting  either 
of  th=  aboA'9  relations;  and  in  those  denoting  frc(7Mc?zcy,  it  i"? 
rarely  expressed  ;  as,  "  We  labored  all  day  ;  "  *'  The  steamer  left 
last  MundaT/;"  "Randolph  crossed  the  Atlantic  sixteen  times  iv 
nine  j'ears.' 

(c.)  The  following  table -contains  the  principal  prepositions 
emploved  to  denote  the  differe'it  relations  of  time  :  — 


106  ANALYSIS    OF     SENTENCES. 

1.  Point  ....  =  «<;,  on.,  171^  within^  by,_ 

^    „,.         .      ,  ,2.  Period.  . .  .  =for.  during,  through. 

1.   iti/ie  simultaneous.  <  ,  , 

throug/iout. 

3.  Frequency.* 

1.  Point   .  .  .  =  before,  ere,  towards. 

II.   Trtjie  antecedent.  .  .  {  2.  Period  .  .  .  =  till,  until. 

3.  F^'equency  =for. 

1.  Point  ....==  after. 
III.   Time  subsequent.  •  -  {  2.  Period  .  .  .  =froni,  since. 

3.  Frequency  =for. 

(d.)  ,A  point  of  time,  is  often  denoted  by  the  preposition  and 
participle;  as,  "  I  went,  on  hearing  the  news." 

(e.)    Between  and  letioixt  denote  both  antecedent  and  subse- 
quent time,  since  they  refer  to  two  points ;  as,  "  I  shall  leave  be 
tween  Monday  and  Thursday." 

Exercise  35. 

Analyze  the  following  propositions^  and  tell  whether 
the  phrases  denote  a  time  simultaneous  with^  antecedent 
tOy  or  subsequent  to,  the  time  of  the  event :  — 

The  steamer  left  on  Friday.  The  cars  will  arrive  at 
Ivvelve.  Some  birds  remain  throughout  the  year.  My 
cousin  staid  a  week.  (224,  h.)  The  v/ork  must  be  com- 
pleted before  Saturday.  The  stage  will  arrive  towards 
morning.  The  president  staid  till  Monday.  The  boat  left 
after  twelve.  I  have  been  here  since  sunrise.  The  boat 
was  repaired  six  times. 

Write  ten  sentences,  each  containing  some  phrase  de- 
noting time. 

Select  fifteen  sentences  from  your  reading  lesson, 
each  having  a  phrase  denoting  time. 

*  As  the  f-esent  is  but  an  instant,  a  repetition  of  an  act  can- 
not occur  in  present  time.  We  cannot  saj',  "  I  do  it  ten  times," 
jnless  we  use  "  do  "  in  the  sense  of  "  shall  do." 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  107 

ill.  — PHRASES  DENOTING   CAUSE   OR   SOURCE. 

225.  Phrases  which  denote  cause  or  source  gen- 
erally answer  the  questions,  Why  ?  On  what  account  ? 
For  ivhat  purpose?  From  what  source  1  as,  "  Christ 
was  betrayed  ybr  moneys 

(a.)  The  prepositions  used  to  denote  these  relations  are,  most 
commonly,  for,  with,  of,  from,  hy,  through.  To  these  add  the 
phrases  on  account  of  and  because  of. 

226.  The  infinitive  often  expresses  a  moral 
cause  or  motive ;  as,  ''  He  went  to  see." 

(a.)  The  infinitive  commonly  called  absolute,  denotes  a  pur- 
pose ;  as,  "  To  confess  the  truth,  I  was  present." 

227.  The  participial  noun  often  expresses  a  cause 
or  motive  ;  as,  ''  He  was  arrested /o?-  stealing.^'' 

Exercise  36. 

The  poor  man  died  of  hunger.  The  woman  fainted 
from  fright.  The  farmer  was  imprisoned  for  debt.  The 
soldier  fights  for  glory.  The  party  were  travelling  for 
pleasure.  The  victim  seemed,  by  his  dress,  to  be  a  sailor. 
The  children  went  to  see  the  animals.  They  remained  to 
visit  dieir  friends.  Washington  sent  an  ofhcer  to  recon- 
noitre the  enemy's  camp.     Vi  e  stopped  to  see  the  consul. 

Write  twenty  sentences^  limiting  each  predicate  by 
a  phrase  denoting  cause, 

IV.  — PHRASES  DENOTING  MANNER. 

228.  Phrases  denoting  manner,  like  their  corre- 
6])onding  adverbs,  may  denote  either  quality  or 
fliiantity.     Those  which  denote  qu?'ity  answer"  the 


7  08  ANALYSIS    OF     SENTENCES. 

question,  Howl  as,  ^' The  messenger  came  (IIowlj 
in  haste  "  Those  which  denote  quantity  answer 
the  questions,  ifoty  much?  &c  . ,  as,  ''The  wall 
was  ten  rods  long." 

(a.)  Phrases  denoting  quality  are  commonly  connected  w\\h 
verbs;  those  denoting  quantity,  with  adjectives. 

229.  Phrases  answering  the  question,  Hoiv  7 
are,  — 

(a.)  Those  which  show  how  any  thing  is  done; 
as,  "  The  height  of  the  mountain  was  measured 
with  accuracy  ;  "  — 

(6.)  Those  which  show  a  resemblance  ;  as,  "  The 
water  rushed  lihe  a  torrent'/^  — 

(c.)  Those  which  show  the  means  or  instrument; 
as,  "  Turenne  was  killed  with  a  cannon  hall; "  — 

(d.)  Those  which  denote  accompaniment;  as, 
"  Abraham  went  ivith  Lot ;  "  — 

(e.)  St^^®  which  denote  agency;  as,  "The 
world  ^JJp  made  by  him.^'' 

Note.  Su<ih  phrases  as  "  with  certainty,  '  "  in  truth,"  "  with- 
out doubt,"  show  the  manner  of  the  assertion,  and  are  therefore 
expanded  forms  of  the  modal  adverbs  (134)  "certainly,"  "truly," 
"  doubtless." 

230.  (Quantity  may  be  spoken  of  absolutely,  or 
by  way  of  comparison ;  as,  "  The  horse  is  twenty 
years  old ;  "   "  The  horse  is  too  old  for  service,'^ 

231.  (Quantity  used  absolutely  may  mark,  — 

{a.)  Degree  of  magnitude  ,*  as, ''  She  was  modest 
io  excess ;  "  — 

(6.)  Measure  of  magnitude:  as,  "The  wall  is 
ien  feet  high  ;  "  — 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES.  109 

(c.)  The  measure  of  excess ;  as,  "He  is  foiir 
hiehes*  taller  than  his  brother." 

232.  An  attribute  may  be  predicated  of  a  subject, 
so  as  to  snow  that  it  exists  in  quantity  or  degree 
equal  to,  or  unequal  to,  the  use  which  is  to  be  made 
of  it.  The  former  is  called  comparison  of  equality ; 
the  latter,  of  inequality  ;  as,  ''  Medicine  is  good  [not 
m  itself,  but]  for  a  sick  man;^^  "  The  medicine  is 
too  powerful  [not  for  all  complaints,  but]  for  a 
chronic  affection.^'' 

233.  In  comparison  of  equality,  when  the  second 
term  is  a  verbal  idea,  the  infinitive,  with  or  without 
its  subject,  (193,)  or  the  participial  noun,  may  be 
used;  as,  "  Prunes  are  good  for  eating,  or  to  eat ;^' 
"  The  cake  is  too  rich /or  the  child  to  eat.''^ 

(a.)  Comparison  of  equality  is  indicated,  first,  by  the  simple 
adjective  with /or;  secondly,  by  enough  or  sufficiently  .  . .  .for,  or 
the  simple  infinitive  without  "  fiar ;  "  thirdly,  by  50  ... .  as,  with 
the  infinitive ;  as,  "  Milk  is  good/or  children ;  "  "  The  apples  are 
ripe  enough /or  iwe,  or  to  use;  "  "  Smith  was  so  artful  as  to  extri- 
cate himself." 

234.  Inequality  is  used  to  denote  excess  or  de- 
fect ;  as,  "  The  undertaking  was  too  great  for  so 

slight  a  preparation.^^ 

The  preparation  is  not  equal  in  magnitude  to  the  undertaking 
(a.)   The  superlative  degree  takes  after  it  the  noun  denoting 

the  object  with  which  the  subject  is  compared ;   as,  "  Achillea 

was  the  bra  rest  of  the  Greeks." 

235.  The  second  term  may  be,  as  above,  an  in- 
finitive or  participial  noun  ;  as,  '•'  It  is  too  stormy 
for  the  boat  to  leave  to-nightJ* 

*  The  measure  of  magnitude,  or  of  excess,  is  commonly  ex- 
pressed without  a  preposition.     (?94,  b.) 

10 


Ill)  ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES. 

(fl.)  Sometimes  the  <o  of  the  infinitive  is  omitted;  as, "  We 
could  do  no  less  than  receive  it.' 

(i.)    Comparison  of  inequality  is  denoted,  first,  by  too /or, 

or  the  simple  infinitive  without  "  for ; "  secondly,  by  more  or  less 
than,  with  the  infinitive  ;  as,  "  He  was  too  young  for  the  sit- 
uation, or  to  take  the  situation ;  "  "  You  can  do  no  less  than  in- 
vite him." 

Exercise  37. 

Analyze  the  following  propositions,  and  parse  the 
phrases :  — 

The  anchor  clung  to  the  rock  with  tenacity.  The  ele- 
phant takes  hi-s  food  with. his  trunk.  The  dove  flew  with 
rapidity.  The  Greeks  took  Troy  by  stratagem.  The 
coachmat5  rode  by  in  haste.  They  have  rushed  through 
like  a  hurricane.  They  devoured  the  earth  Hke  an  army 
of  locusts.  ThS  Georgium  Sidus  was  discovered  by  Her- 
schel.  Lightning  and  electricity  were  identified  by 
Franklin.  The  man  was  culpable  to  a  great  degree. 
James  walked  with  his  sister.  Columbus  crossed  the  At- 
lantic with  ninety  men.  The  walls  of  Babylon  were  fif- 
teen miles  long.  The  jacket  is  too  large  for  the  boy„ 
The  water  is  too  cold  for  bathing.  The  coat  is  too  gay 
for  an  old  man. 

Write  sentences  limiting  the  predicates  by  the  fol- 
lowing phrases  denoting  agency.  Then  change  the 
verb  to  the  active  voice :  —  , 

By  Columbus;  by  Moges;  by  whales;  by  doves;  by 
Washington ;  by  Cromwell ;  by  Socrates ;  by  Judas ;  by 
Arnold;  by  Paul;  by  rabbits;  by  insects;  by  serpents; 
by  bees ;  by  labor. 

Model.     America  was  discovered  by  Columbus  3=  Co- 

lumbus  discovered  America. 
Write  sentences  limiting  the  predicates  by  the  fol- 
lowing miscellaneous  phrases :  — 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES.  Ill 

In  haste  ;  for  a  boy  :  with  rapidity ;  like  thunder ;  ten 
miles;  six  i'eei;  seven  rods;  for  me  to  do;  with  William; 
with  a  swcrd. 

Change  tke  following  adverbs  into  phrases,  and  em- 
liloi/  them  in  sentences  of  your  own  :  — - 

Carefully,  wisely,  courageously,  unblushingly,  tenderly, 
diligently  harmlessly,  furiously,  despondingly,  thought- 
fully, incautiously,  rapidly,  boldly,  timidly,  foolishly,  bright- 
ly, modesdy,  painfully,  elegantly. 

Model.     He  managed  with  care. 

Write  or  find  twenty  sentences  containing  a  phrase 
denoting  manner.  * 

236.  The  elements  of  a  sentence,  so  far  as  de- 
veloped, may  be  thus  represented:  —  (137,  a.) 

Adj.  -f-  Sub.  :  Fred,  -f-  Obj.  -}-  Adv. 
Class       111  11 

Class      2  2  2  2  2 


SECTION    ^I. 

COMPLEX    ELEMENTS. 

237.  Each  element  of  a  sentence  may  become 
complex,  either  by  uniting  two  dissimilar  simple 
elements  of  the  second  class,  or  by  joining  one  of 
the  first  and  one  of  the  second. 

*  At  this  stage  of  the  pupil's  progress,  his  attention  should  be 

called  to  the  different  constructions  as  they  occur  in  his  readin,?^ 

'  lessons.     He   may  at   length  acquire    a   habit   of  classificatio'-^ , 

which  will  enable  him,  at  sight,  to  recognize  any  construction 

in   the   language.      This   power   is   vastly    more    valuable    than 


112  ANALYSIS  OF  SEWTENCEb. 

238.  The  essential  point  of  dissimilaiity  t^.  Ih^^ 
parts  ot  any  complex  element  is,  that  one  simple 
element  stands  as  principal  or  hasu^  and  that  ali 
others  are  subordinate  to  it ;   as,  "  The  lawyer  fully 
established  the  claims  of  his  client.^^ 

Here  the  objective  element  —  "the  claims  of  his  client"  —  ia 
complex.  "  Claims  "  is  the  basis,  and  "  the  "  and  "  of  his  client " 
are  subordinate  to  it. 

Note.     Foi  other  points  of  dissimilarity,  see  IF  146,  (a.  b.  c) 

239.  In  the  formation  of  a  complex  element 
containing  simple  elements  of  different  classes, — 

(a.)  An  element  of  the  first  class  may  be  the 
basis ;  in  which  case  the  whole  is  said  to  be  of  the 
first  class,  (147;)  as,  "Nobility  of  birth  does  not 
insure  nobility  of  mind;  ^^  — 

(6.)  An  element  of  the  second  class  may  be  the 
basis,  and  to  it  may  be  joined  one  of  the  first ;  as, 
"  The  three  great  apostles  of  practical  atheism  are 
health,  wealth,  and  power ;  "  — 

(c.)  An  element  of  the  second  class  may  be  the 
basis,  and  to  it  may  be  joined  another  element  of 
the  same  class ;  as,  "  Two  of  her  sources  of 
strength   are    physical." 

Note.  The  last  two  combinations  are  complex  elements  of 
the  second  class,  because  the  oasis  of  each  is  of  the  second  class. 
A  subordinate  element  of  the  second  class  is  joined  to  its  basis  hj 
a  connective.     (See  153.) 

the  mere  ability  to  parse  vv^ords.  As  the  naturalist,  in  passing 
through  the  fields,  is  able  to  classify  each  individual  p^ant  that 
meets  his  eye,  so  the  pupil  who  becomes  acquainted  with  tho 
structure  of  the  language,  will  readily  arrange  under  its  proper 
iivision  every,  combination  of  v/ords  which  he  reads. 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES.  113 

240.  Complex  elements  may  be  formed  by 
either  of  the  following  combinations  of  simple 
elements :  — 

EXAMPLES 

Class  I.    By  joining  P  and  1  ==  very  quickly, 

C  1  and  2  =s  hope  of  reward. 

Class  11.    By  joining  P  ^"'^  ^  =  '^  ^reat  haste; 

(.  2  and  2  =  with  assurance  of  success 

Note.  Classes  I.  and  II.,  placed  at  the  left,  show  the  class  of 
the  complex  element.  (147.)  The  figures  1  and  2  show  the 
classes  of  the  simple  elements  which  form  the  combination.  The 
basis  of  each  is  in  small  capitals. 

Models  for  analyzing  complex  Elements. 

The  whole  course  of  his  life  has  been  distinguished 

by  generous  actions. 

It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  contains  but  one 

proposition. 

Course is  the  subject,  and 

Has  been  distinguished  is  the  predicate. 

The  subject,  course.,  is  limited  by  "  the  "  and  "  whole,"  both 
adjective  elements  of  the  first  class.  It  is 
also  limited  by  the  phrase  "  of  his  life,"  a 
complex  adjective  element  of  the  second 
class,  used  to  explain  the  "  course." 
"Of  life"  is  the  basis.  "Life"  is  lim- 
ited by  "  his,"  a  simple  adjective  element 
of  the  first  class,  denoting  whose  life. 

The  predicate,  has  been  distinguished.,  is  limited  by  the 
phrase  "  by  generous  actions  "  —  a  com- 
plex adverbial  element  of  the  second 
class,  showing  hoiu  the  course  of  his  life 
had  been  distinguished.  The  basis  of  the 
10* 


114 


ANALYSIS     OF     SENTENCES 


phrase  is  "by  actions."  "Actions"  is 
limited  by  "  generous,"  a  siraple  adjective 
element  of  the  first  class,  showing  what 
kind  of  actions. 

r^OTjE,  in  these  examples,  the  basis  of  each  complex  element 
is  itself  an  element  of  the  second  class,  and  the  phrase  is  formed 
by  joining  classes  2  -\~  1.     (147.) 

The  excessive  labor  undergone  in  preparing  for  his 
examination,  occasioned  a  dangerous  illness. 

It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  contains  but  one 

proposition. 
Lahor is  the  subject,  and 

Occasioned  .....  is  the  predicate. 

The  subject,  labor,  is  limited  by  "  the  "  and  "  excessive," 

both  simple  adjective  elements  of  the 
first  class.  It  is  also  limited  by  "  un- 
dergone in  preparing  for  his  exam- 
ination," a  complex  adjective  element 
of  the  first  class,  (147, 153,)  used  to  de- 
note the  occasion  or  circumstance  of  the 
labor.  "Undergone"  is  the  basis.  It 
is  an  adjective  element  of  the  first  class, 
and  belongs  to  "labor."  (Kule  V.)  It 
is  limited  by  "  in  preparing  for  his  ex- 
amination," a  complex  adverbial  ele- 
ment of  the  second  class,  denoting  how 
the  labor  was  undergone.  "In  prepar- 
ing "  is  the  basis.  "  Preparing "  is 
limited  by  "  for  his  examination,"  a 
complex  adverbial  element  of  the 
second  class,  showing /or  what,  or  why, 
he  was  preparing.  The  basis  is,  "for 
examination."     "  Examination  "  is  lim- 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES.  115 

ited  by  "  his,"  a  simple  adjective  ele- 
ment of  the  first  class,  sliowing  whose 
examination.  The  simple  elements  of 
this  combination  may  be  thus  repre'^' 
sented  :  —  1  -f  2  +  2  +  1. 
The  pred.,  occasioned^  is  limited  by  "  a  dangerous  illness  " 

a  complex  objective  element  of  the  first 
class,  denoting  what  the  labor  occa- 
sioned. *'  Illness,"  the  basis,  is  the 
object  of  "  occasioned,"  (Rule  VIII.) 
and  is  limited  by  "  a "  and  "  danger- 
ous," both  simple  adjective  elements  of 
the  first  class.     (103.) 

Exercise    38 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  separate  each 
complex  element  into  its  component  parts,  according  to 
the  model :  — 

The  Spartan  youth  were  accustomed  to  go  barefoot. 
Many  a  despicable  wretch  lies  under  a  marble  monument, 
decorated  with  a  flattering  epitaph,  Italy  is  a  large  penin- 
sula, bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Alps.  The  king  re- 
turned in  the  gleam  of  his  arms.  The  chiefs  gathered 
round  the  falling  Carthon.  His  words  reached  the  heart 
of  Clessammor.  After  the  denial  of  the  charge,  he  with- 
drew in  dignified  displeasure.  The  prayers  of  David,  the 
son  of  Jesse,  are  ended.  Suddenly  the  sound  of  the  sig- 
nal-gun broke  the  stillness  of  the  night.  The  same  is 
true  of  literary  men. 

Write  sentences,  limiting  the  subject  of  each  by  a 
complex  adjective  element,  which  shall  have  for  its 
basis  one  of  the  following  participles  or  adjectives 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  sentence :  — 


iI6  ANALVSiS  OF  SENTENCES. 

Gliding,  tager,  feeding,  anxious,  desirous,  floating,  con. 
scious,  encircled,  enriched,  regardless,  flying,  searchmgj 
waiting,  opening,  commencing,  wading,  poring,  finding, 
mvare,  awake,  ambitious,  indignant,  robed,  detained, 
amazed,   confused. 

Model.     Gliding  along  the  edge  of  the  horizon*  a  dis 
tant  sail  sometimes  attracted  our  attention.     Eager  to 
attain  to  the  highest  rank,  he  labored  incessantly. 

fVrite  comj^dex  elements  based  on  the  following 
nouns  or  infinitives  used  as  objects,  and  introduce 
them  into  sentences  of  your  own :  — 

Laws,  congress,  constitution,  county,  work,  discourse, 
fable,  dialogue,  catalogue,  inventory,  league,  truce, 
country,  labor ;  to  study  ;  to  invite  ;  to  leave  ;  to  stay  ;  to 
sing ;  to  have  run. 

Model.     The  Romans  examined  the  laws  of  Solon. 

Add  simple  or  complex  elements,  either  of  the  first 
or  second  class,  or  both,  to  the  following  phrases 
used  as  adverbial  elements  :  — 

In  honor ;  on  returning ;  by  searching ;  in  the  capital ; 
through  the  air;  on  opening;  to  view,  (inf.  of  purpose, 
226;)  to  solich;  to  invite;  over  hills;  under  the  wall;  in 
search ;  into  the  town ;  for  stealing ;  of  his  breaking ;  of 
her  being  sick  ;  of  his  being  a  scholar. 

Model.     One  hundred  guns  were  fired  in  honor  of  the 
victory  gained  by  the  Americans  over  the  British. 

Write  six  sentences,  introducing  either  a  comylex 
adjective,  objective  or  adverbial  element,  containing 
the  following  combinations  of  simple  elements  :  — 

*  Place  a  coi/iina  at  the  end  of  tlie  phrase,  especially  if  it  i« 
long. 


ANALYSIS    OF     SENTENCES  I  17 

2+1  +  2.  2  +  2+1.  2  +  2+1+2.  1  +  2 
+  1.  1+2  +  2.  2  +  2  +  1  +  2+1.  (See  model, 
p.  114.) 

Model.     He  was  saved  hy  ropes , . .  thrown  . .  from  the 


ship. 


f 


SECTION    VII. 

COMPOUND    ELEMENTS. 

241.  Compound  elements  of  the  second  class, 
like  those  of  the  first,  are  formed  by  uniting  two 
or  more  similar  simple  or  complex  elements  of  the 
second  class ;  as,  "  To  read  and  to  write  are  profita- 
ble." 

Note.     For  connectives,  see  H  157,  (a.  b.  c.) 

(«.)  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  that  a  simple  element  of  the 
second  class  has  a  connective  (179)  of  its  own,  which  unites  it 
subordinately  to  some  preceding  word.  Besides  this,  the  parts  of 
a  compound  element  of  the  second  class  are  united  to  each  other 
by  one  of  the  coordinate  conjunctions. 

(0.)    The  essential  point  of  similarity  is  ilae  rank  which  the 
elements  sustain  to  each  other.     They  must  be  equal  in  rank 
(See  150,  a.) 

242.  The  component  parts  of  a  compound  ele- 
ment should  be  of  the  same  class,  that  is,  both  of 
the  first  or  both  of  the  second. 

NoTK.  To  this  rule  there  may  be  a  few  exceptions ;  as,  "  The 
pupil  performed  his  to-ak  promptly  and  with  care;''  —  better, 
^promptly  and  ca'-efulbj"  or  '■'■with  promptness  and  with  care.' 

243.  Compound  elements  may  be  formed  by 
unithig.  — 


118  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 

(a.)  Two  or  more  principal  ehments ;  as,  ^^ Fo"^ 
me  to  labor,  and  for  you  to  be  idle,  would  be  un- 
just ; "  "  The  lad  was  ivithout  money  and  with- 
out friends  "  =  "  Penniless  and  friendless;  "  - — 

{b.)  Two  or  more  subordinate  elements  ;  as,  "  The 
islands  of  Cuba  and  [of]  Hayti  belong  to  the  West 
Irdies;"  "The  boy  learned  to  read  and  write ;^^ 
"  You  may  pass  through  the  house  and  garden,''^  * 

ft 

Note.     See  models  for  analyzing  compound  elements,  Chap- 
ter I. 

Exercise  39. 

A  stream  of  flame  and  smoke  issued  from  the  chimney  % 
The  hearts  of  the  brothers  were  not  divided  during  the 
peace  and  the  troubles  of  this  life. '  The  obligation  of 
respect  and  love  for  parents  never  ceases.  .  Hampden 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  his  countrymen,  and  across 
ihe  path  of  tyranny.  To  be  or  not  to  be,  is  the  question. 
Sarah  loves  to  sing  and  dance.  They  were  stationed  there 
to  defend  the  fort,  and  to  awe  the  citizens. 

Write  ten  sentences,  introducing  into  them  a  coin- 
pound  element  of  the  second  class.  Let  the  first  five 
be  connected  by  "  and ;  "  the  next  three  be  connected 
'by  ^' but ;  "  a7id  the  remainder,  by  ^^  ox  ^'   or  *' nor." 

Write  sentences  uniting  the  ivords  between  the  semi' 
colons  into  a  compound  adjective  or  adverbial  element 
of  the  second  class. 

Robber, murderer ;  truth, humanity ;  zeal, energy;  Eng- 
land, America  ;  Europe,  Asia ;  hope,  fear ;  day,  night. 
Model.     The  name  of  the  7'obher  and  murderer  hasi 
been  ascertained. 

*  The  jjreposition  is  generally  omitted  by  ellipsis  in  the  second 
phrase. 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCjES.  119 

SECTION    VIII. 

SEVERAL  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  SAME  NAME. 

244.  There  may  be  in  the  second,  as  in  the 
first  clasSj  several  elements  of  the  same  name,  not 
connected  with  each  other.     (S^  165.) 

(a.)  Such  elements  are  always  subordinate,  and  are  generally 
either  adjective  or  adverbial. 

245.  By  means  of  the  several  conditions  of  the 
elements  already  explained,  a  simple  sentence  may 
be  extended  at  pleasure. 

Exercise  40. 

A.n  orator  may  often,  by  this  kind  of  style,  gain  great 
admiration,  without  being  nearer  to  his  proper  end.  The 
unfortunate  man  passed  from  one  subject  to  another, 
without  being  aware  of  the  abruptness  of  his  transitions. 
The  coach  will  leave  the  city  in  the  morning  before  sun- 
rise. Recounting  the  dark  catalogue  ,of  abuses  already 
suffered,  and  appealing  to  the  Supreme  Judge  of  the  world 
for  the  rectitude  of  their  intentions,  they  shook  off  forever 
their  allegiance  to  the  British  crown,  and  pronounced  the 
United  Colonies  an  independent  nation.  The  boat  v/ili 
sail  from  Norwich  to  New   York  on  Thursday. 

246.  It  will  be  readily  perceived  that  the  ma- 
terials employed  in  this  chapter  resemble,  in  their 
use,  those  of  Chapter  I.     There  are,  — 

1.   The  substantive  phrase^-  (the  \    •  '^^   J       »     .  ^^  Fj-edicate- 


2.  Attribut 


C  1.  Fredic 
(  2.  Modi! 


mf.)  used  as    ?  o"  r^v.-     .      '  '  2-  Modifier; 

^  3    Object.  ' 

II.   7'he  adjective  phrase,  used  as  .     .     Attribute,^     " 

(.  2.  Modifier ; 

HI.   The  adverbial  vhrase,  used  as  .  .  . ....  Modifier. 


120  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 

247.    These   materials,  arranged   in   a   formula, 
stand  thus :  — 

Adj.  Element,      -f-      SUB.      :      PRED.     -\-     Oej.  Ele.    -j-    Adt  Ele. 
Infinitive,        )       j^^^^    C  Infinitive,        >  j^g^        ^^^^  pj^^^^ 
Adj.  Phrase.  )  C  Adj.   Phrase,  ) 

Exercise   41.- — Miscellaneous. 

VKing  James  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  heinous  sin  of  using 
tobacco.  The  ancienjts,  for  want  of  telescoj)^s,  formed 
many  absurd  notions  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  The  sun, 
according  to '  some  ancient  philosophers,  quenches  his 
flames  in  the  ocean.  Alfred  the  Great  was  not  only  the 
king,  but  the  father,  of  his  people.  I  speak  not  of  tempo- 
ral, but  of  eternal  interests.  No  one  ought,  unnecessarily, 
to  wound  the  feelings,  or  insult  the  religious  preposses- 
sions, of  his  neighbors.  We  have  taken  up  arms,  not  to 
betray,  but  to  defend,  our  country.  Study  serves  for  de 
light,  for  ornament,  and  for  ability.  To  attempt  to  work 
upon  the  vulgar  with  fine  sense,  is  like  attempting  to  hew 
blocks  of  marble  with  a  razor.  One  of  the  noblest  of  the 
Christian  virtues  is,  to  love  our  enemies.  Sincerity  and 
truth  form  the  basis  of  every  virtue.  The  man  of  genuine 
virtue  must  be  endowed  with  a  sagacious  judgment  and  ap 
ardent  zeal. 

Write  ten  sentences,  each  containing  comylex  or 
compound  elements. 

Complete  the  following   sentences :  — 

He   was  formed   (For  what.?). The  writings  (Of 

whom?)  were  studied  (By  whom.?)  (When.?)  (Where  .?, 

(Why.?). (What  kind.?)  poet  (Of  what  place.?)  de- 

Bcribes  (What?)  (How?). 

Write  sentences  containing  the  foUomng  words 
Let  all  the  words  between  the  semicolons  be  introduced 
into  a  single  sentence. 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES.  121 

Honey,  bee,  Qower ;  farmer,  grain,  ploughs ;  ship,  sailor, 
fcag,  mast ;  lapidary,  ring,  diamond,  gold ;  skeleton,  mus- 
cles, nerves ;  inertia,  force,  momentum ;  equation,  terms, 
quantity ;  history,  chronology,  era,  dates  ;  conscience, 
judgment,  intellect. 


SECTION    IX. 
INTERROGATIVE    SENTENCES. 

248.  An  interrogative  sentence  is  used  to  ask  a 
question  ;  as.  "  Whom  did  yon  see  ?  "  A  sentence 
used  to  state  a  fact,  or  the  possibility  of  a  fact,  is 
called  a  declarative  sentence  ;  as,  ''  I  saw  George;  '^ 
''You  can  see  George." 

249.  An  interrogative  sentence  relates  either  to 
the  whole  or  a  part  of  a  corresponding  declarative 
sentence,  called  the  answer  or  responsive ;  as, 
"Whom  did  you  see?  Ans.  John ;  ^^  that  is,  "I 
saw  John.^^  —  "  Did  you  see  John  ?  Ans.  Yes  ==  I 
did  see  John." 

(a.)  The  first  question  refers  to  only  a  part  of  the  declarative 
sentence,  namely,  the  object  of  the  verb;  but  the  second  refers 
to  thf  whole,  and  may  be  answered  by  "yes"  or  "no,"  v>'hich 
are  equivalent  to  the  entire  sentence,  —  the  former  without  the 
negative  "not,"  the  latter  with  it 

250.  A  question  which  refers  to  the  Avhole  of 
the  corresponding  declarative  sentence,  is  called 
direct ;  one  which  refers  to  only  a  single  part  of 

t,  is  called  indirect 

11 


122  ANALYSIS     OF    SENTENCES. 


i   ^DIRECT    Ip^TERROGATlVE     SENTENCES. 

251.  A  direct  interrogative  sentence  requires  an 
affirmation  or  denial,  and  is  introduced  by  the  Merh 
or  its  auxiliary;  as,  ^^ Have  you  seen  George? 
Yes  =  I  have  seen  George." 

(a.)    Direct  questions  require,  at  the  close,  the  upward  inflec- 
tion of  the  voice  in  uttering  them ;  as,  "  Will  you  go'  ?  " 

Model  for  Analysis. 

Have  you  written  1 

It  is  an  interrogative  sentence,  because  it  asks  a  ques- 
tion ;  simple^  because  it  contains  but  one  proposition ; 
direct^  because  it  requires  an  affirmation  or   denial. 

Vou is  the  subject. 

Have  written  .  .  is  the  predicate. 

Note.     The  elements  of  an  interrogative  sentence  are  in  all 
respects  like  those  of  a  declarative. 

Exercise  42. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences :  — 

Are  you  here  ?  Is  your  brother  well  ?  Have  you 
returned  ?  Did  Cain  kill  Abel  ?  Is  your  master  at  home  ? 
Will  you  ride  to  town  to-day  ?  Should  not  merchants  be. 
punctual  in  paying  their  debts?  Do  you  thinlc  Ivim  so 
base  ?  Have  you  learned  the  lesson .?  May  the  children 
visit  the  country  to-morrow  ?  Had  the  patient  recoyered 
on  your  arrival  ?  May  we  not  sit  under  this  tree  ?  Must 
I  leave  town  to-morrow  ?  Does  the  bright  sun  gi-ow  dim 
m  the  heavens  ?     Am  I  my  brother's  keeper  ?     Are  you 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES.  123 

going  to  see  the  elephant  ?  ,  Shall  I  send  the  letter  to  the 
office  ?     Did  you  kill  the  Nemasan  lion  ? 

Writz  fifteen  direct  interrogative  sentences,  and  bt 
careful  to  place  after  each  an  interrogation  point,  (?)^ 

Convert  the  questions  in  the  first  part  of  this  exer 
cise  into  declarative  sentences.     Place  a  period  {.)  ai 
the  end  of  each. 

Model.     You  are  here.     Your  brother  is  well. 


l..^ INDIRECT    INTERROGATIVE    SENTENCES. 

252.  An  indirect  interrogative  sentence  requires, 
as  its  answer,  that  part  of  the  declarative  sentence 
lo  which  the  question  relates,  and  is  always  intro- 
duced by  some  interrogative  word ;  as,  "  JVho 
came?      Charles  =^  Charles  came." 

Note.     Study  the  lesson  in  tlie  Appendix  on  interrogatives. 

253.  An  indirect  question  may  refer  to  either 
of  the  five  elements  of  a  declarative  sentence. 

(a.)    Connectives  are  not  referred  to  by  interrogatives, 

254.  Since  the  essential  materials  (176)  of  a 
sentence  are  of  the  nature  of  the  substantivcj  adjec- 
five  J  or  adverb,  we  have,  to  inquire  for  them,  three 
kinds  of  interrogative  words,  — 

(a.)  Interrogative  pronouns,  which  inquire  for  a 
substantive  ;  as,  Who  ?    H^ich  1    What  ? 

{h.)  Interrogative  adjectives,  which  inquire  for  an 
adjective;  as,  What  or  Which  (person  or  thing?) 
How  many  1    What  Jcind  1 

{c.)    Interrogative  adverbs,  which  'nquive  for  some 


/ 


124  ANALYSIS    OF     SENTENCES. 

circumstance  of  ylace^  time,  cause^  or  manner;  as 
Where!    When!    Whyl    Hoiv? 

255.  As  the  substantive  may  enter  into  a  sen- 
tence in  three  different  relations,  (subject,  attributej 
and  object,)  the  uiterrogative  pronoun  is  made,  by 
inflection,  to  indicate  these  relations. 

[a.)  When  the  pronoun  is  the  subject  or  predicate  of  the  inter- 
rogative sentence,  it  inquires  for  the  subject  or  predicate  of  the 
answer;  as,  "  fF7io  comes?  Charles  =  Charles  comes."  '■'■  ]Vho 
is  it?  Charles  =  It  is  Charles."  In  like  manner,  when  the  pro- 
noun  is  the  adjective,  objective,  or  advereial  element  of  the  ques 
tion,  it  inquires  for  the  same  in  the  answer ;  as,  "  Whose  book 
was  torn?  Peter  S'=  Peter's  book  wa?  torn."  "  ^F7i07/i  did  you 
see?  David  =  I  saw  David."  ^^JVith  tohom  did  you  study' 
With  Francis  =  1  studied  xcith  Francis.'" 

256.  The  adjective  used  as  predicate  is  inquired 
for  by  Howl  as,  "  Hoiv  is  Charles  ?  Well  —  Charles 
is  welV^  The  verbal  attribute  is  inquired  for  by 
What  .  ...  do]  or  What  ....  doing  1  as,  ''  What 
did  James  o?o?  James  wrote.'''  '■^  Wliat  is  James 
doing'}  James  is  ivritingV^  The  adjective  used 
as  a  modifier  is  inquu'ed  for  by  What  kind!  if  it 
denotes  quality  ;  How  many  1  if  it  denotes  number  ; 
M^iich  or  What  joined  to  the  noun  which  the  adjec- 
tive limits  in  the  answer,  if  it  limits  merely;  as. 
"  Which  pen  shall  I  use  ?     This,  that,  &,c.,  pen, 

257.  The  adverbial  element  is  used  only  as  a 
modifier,  and  is  inquired  for  by  Where!  Whither! 
Whence!  for  the  three  relations  of  place  ;  When! 
How  long !  How  often !  for  the  three  relations  of 
time;  Why!  for  cause;  and  How!  or  Hoio  mur.hl 
^or  manner. 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES.  125 

258.  The  indirect  object  and  the  adverbial  ele- 
ment are  often  inquired  for  by  What  1  or  Whom  1 
preceded  by  a  preposition ;  as,  "  To  ivhom  (whom) 
did  you  write  ? "  "  In  what  (wherein)  does  be 
excel 


.1  >  )j 


(a.)  The  following  are  the  principal  interrogatives  biought 
together :  — 

1  Those  which  inquire  for  a  substantive  :  —  Who  ?  Which  f 
What? 

2.  Those  which  inquire  for  an  adjective  :  —  How  many?  What 
kind  ?     What  ....  do*  or  doing  ?  *     lUw  ^ 

3.  Those  which  inquire  for  an  adverb  :  —  Where?  Whither? 
Whence?  When?  Hoio  long?  How  often?  Whij?  l^Tiere- 
fore  ?    How  ?    How  much  ?    also,    In  tchat  ?     Through  lohat  ?  &c. 

{h.)    These  interrogatives  become  connectives  when  the  inter- 
rogative sentence  is  made  a  subordinate  part  of  another  sentence 
as,  "  I  know  not  how  he  came." 

Model  for  Analysis  and  Parsing. 

Where  does  he  live  1     Ans.   In  Boston. 

h  is  an  ijiterrogative  sentence,  because  it  asks  a  question  , 
simple,  because  it  contains  but  one  proposition ;  indirecly 
because  it  refers  to  a  part  of  a  corresponding  declarative 
sentence  —  "  in  Boston." 

He is  the  subject. 

Does  live  ...  is  the  predicate. 

The  predicate  is  limited  by  "  where,"  an  adverbial  ele- 
ment of  the  first  class,  inquiring  for  place. 

Where is  an  interrogative  adverb,  and  belongs  to 

"  does  live  ; "  according  to  Rule  IX, 


*  Relating  to  the  attributive  part  of  a  verb,  i.  e  ,  the  participle, 
w^hich  is  a  species  of  adjective.  (65,  a  ) 

11* 


126  ANiLYSIS    OF     SENTENCES. 


Exercise  43. 


Analyze  the  following  interrogative  sentences ,  a^d 
parse  the  interrogative  words  :  — 

Who  came  in  yesterday?  Who  reported  the  doings  of 
congress  ?  Whose  hat  is  this  ?  Whose  knife  have  1 
found  ?  W^hom  did  you  visit  ?  Whom  did  the  president 
nominate  ?  Which  book  did  you  take"?  What  name 
have  his  parents  given  him  ?  VVhat  news  have  you 
heard  ?  How  .many  soldiers  were  killed  in  the  battle  ? 
What  kind  of  people  first  inhabited  England  ?  What  is 
Charles  doing ?  How  is  he?  When  shrill  you  visit  the 
Springs?  When  did  he  cancel  the  debt  ?  flow  long  did 
he  stay  ?  ■  How  often  does  George  visit  his  mother  ?. 
Where  is  the  promised  fruit  of  all  his  toil  ?  Wlience 
comes  this  tumult  ?  Whither  are  you  going  ?  Why  do 
you  weave  around  you  this  thread  of  occupation  ?  How 
did  you  come  ?  In  what  way  do  you  intend  to  ^o  ?  To 
whom  shall  I  deliver  the  message?  At 'what  time  shall 
we  send  the  letter  ?  '*  ^ 

Write  answers  to  the  above  sentences,  and  draw 
a  line  under  that  part  to  which  the  question  refers. 
Be  careful  to  change  the  {})  to  a  (,) 

Model.     David  came  in  yesterday. 

Write  sentences  introduced  by  the  following  inter- 
rogatives :  — 

Why?  On  what  account  ?  Where?  When?  Whose? 
Of  whom  ^  On  what  ?  Whither  ?  Whence  ?  In  what 
place  '*  How  many  ?  Whom  ?  Which  ?  In  consideration 
of  what?  On  what  condition?  How?  Wherein?  By 
what?  Over  whom  ?  On  what?  Under  what?  Through 
what  ?  On  whose  account  ? 
Write  an  answer  tj  each. 


ANAl.ySlS    OF     SKNTENCES.  127 


CHAPTER   III. 

(COMPLKX    SENTENCES.)  "" 

l-aJiMElSTS    OF     THE    THIRD    CLASS.  -SUBOR- 
.    DINATE  CLAUSES. 


SECTION    I. 
NATURE    OF   ELEMENTS   OF   THE   THIRD   CLASS. 

259.  Instead  of  a  word  or  phrase,  an  entire  pro^y 
06-ition  is  often  used  as  one  of  the  five  elements  of 
a  sentence  ;  as,  ''  M%en  spring  comes,    the  flowers 
will  bloom; '^^ 

260.  A  proposition  thus  used  is  called  suhordi" 
lutte,  because  it  depends  upon  another,  which,  in 
reference  to  it,  is  called  j/rincipal. 

261.  An  element  of  the  third  class  is,  therefore, 
a  subordinate  proposition  used  as  the  constituent 
part  of  a  sentence.     (10,  178.) 

(a.)  It  will  be  seen,  first,  that  loords  duxd phrases  may  be 
anited  so  as  to  form  a  simple  sentence ;  and,  secondly,  that  this 
sejitence  may  lose  its  distinctness,  and  become  an  organic  part 
of  another  sentence. 

262.  The  propositions  which  unite  to  form  a 
sentence  are  called  clauses. 

263.  A  complex  sentence  is  formed  by  uniting  a 
nrincipal  and  a  subordinate  clause. 


128  ANALSfSIS    OF    SENTENCES. 

(a.)  A  complex  sentence  is  formed  by  uniting  two  dissimilar 
eimple  sentences,  just  as  a  complex  element  is  Ibrmed  by  uniting 
two  dissimilar  (146)  simple  elements. 

I. —  COMPONENT  PARTS    OF    THE    SUBORDINATE 

CLAUSE. 

264.  The  parts  which  are  essential  to  a  subord)- 
i\Die  clause  are,  a  connective,  a  subject^  and  a  predicate. 

265.  The  connective  is  called  subordinate,  be- 
cause it  renders  the  proposition  which  follows  it 
subordinate  to  some  part  of  the  principal  proposi- 
tion with  which  it  is  connected. 

{a.)  The  connective  is  as  much  a  part  of  the  subordinate  prop- 
osition as  the  preposition  is  a  part  of  a  phrase.  In  fact,  the  same 
word  is  often  used  in  one  construction  to  connect  a  phrase,  and 
in  another  to  connect  a  clause ;  as,  "  The  ship  sailed  before  sun- 
rise "  =  "The  ship  sailed  before  the  sun'rosc.^^ 

266.  These  connectives  are  parsed  by  the  fol- 
lowing rule  :  — 

Rule  XVI.  Subordinate  connectives  are 
used  to  join  dissimilar  elements. 

267.  The    subject    or   predicate  of    a  subordi> 

nate  proposition  may  be  limited  by  an  element  of 

i\iQ  first,  second,  or  third  class. 

(ft.)  W^hen  the  subject  or  predicate  of  a  subord.nate  clause  is 
limited  by  another  clause,  the  latter  is  subordinate  in  the  second 
degree.     (See  145,  b:) 

11.^  THE   CLAUSE   CONSIDERED    AS  A    WHOLE. 

268.  The  subordinate  clause,  like  a  single  word 
or  phrase,  may  form  either  of  the  five  elements  of 

sentence. 


ANALYSIS    OF     SENTENCES.  12\i 

269.  Subordinate  clauses  are  divided,  according 
to  their  nature  and  use,  into  substantive,  adjective 
and  adverbial.     (176,   188.) 

270.  A  substantiv3  clause  is  a  substantive  or  an 
infinitive  expanded  into  a  proposition ;  as,  '■'■  Steal- 
ing is  base  "  zn  ''  Tg  steal  is  base  "  =  "  That  one 
should  steal  is  base." 

271.  An  adjective  clciuse  is  an  adjective,  jjartici- 
■ple,  or  adjective  phrase,  expanded  into  a  proposition  ; 
as,  "  A  generous  man  :r=  a  man  of  generosity  =^  a 
man  who  is  generous,  will  be  honored." 

272.  An  adverbial  clause  is  an  adverb,  or  advert 
bial  phrase,  expanded  into  a  proposition  ;  as,  "  The 
ship    sailed    early  ■=■  before  sunrise  z=  before  the   sun 


rose.^^ 


m.—  USES   OF  THE   SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSE. 

273.  The  substantive  clause,  like  the  substan- 
tive, (176,)  may  become  the  subject,  attribute,  or 
object,  of  a  sentence. 

274.  Substantive  clauses  are  of  two  kinds, — • 
those  which  contain  a  statement,  and  those  which 
contain  an  inquiry. 

275.  Those  which  contain  a  statement,  are  in- 
troduced by  that,  that  not,  and  sometimes  but,  9r 
6ut  that;  as,  ''  That  you  have  wronged  me,  doth 
appear  in  this." 

276.  Clauses  which  contain  an  inquiry  are  in- 
Iroduced  by  the  several  interrogatives.  (258,  a.) 

277.  In  the  use  of  interrogative  clauses  m  n 
complex  sentence,  there  are  two  cases :  — 

[a.)    The    interrogative    may   be    the  principa 


130  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 

clause.  The  sentence  is  then  a  complex  interroga- 
tive sentence  ;  as,  "  Do  yeu  Jd'ow  that  your  sister 
!ias  returned  ?  " 

^^. )  The  interrogative  may  be  the  subordinate 
clause.  The  sentence  is  then  a  complex  declara- 
tive sentence  ;  as,  "  Your  father  inquired,  when  1 
had  heard  from  Madras.^'' 

—  278.  When  the  principal  clause  is  interrogative, 
the  interrogation  point  should  always  be  placed 
at  the  end  of  the  sentence  ;  but  when  the  subor- 
dinate clause  is  interrogative,  the  period  should  be 
placed  at  the  end  of  the  sentence,  except  when  the 
subordinate  clause  is  a  direct  quotation.    (See  299.) 

(a.)  When  an  interrogative  sentence  is  made  subordinate,  and 
becomes  an  organic  part  of  another  sentence,  it  loses,  in  a  meas 
lire,  its  interrogative  character;  unless  quoted  (299)  directly. 
There  is  oflen  a  change  of  person,  and  generally  a  change  of  ar- 
rangement; as,  "How  did  you  obtain  the  situation?"  "He 
asked  me  how  /obtained  the  situation." 

( b.)  The  interrogative  becomes  the  connective  to  the  subordi- 
nate clause.  He'nce,  when  interrogative  pronouns  are  used  as 
connectives,  they  should  be  carefully  distinguished  from  relative 
pronouns,  which  are  used  as  the  connectives  of  adjective  clauses. 
Compare  "  1  know  not  who  did  it,"  with  "I  know  not  the  mau 
who  did  it."  ',> 


SECTION    II. 

SUBORDINATE    CLAUSES     USED    AS    PRINCIPAL 

ELEMENTS. 

279.    When  a  subordinate  clause  is  used  as  the 
subject  or  predicate  of  a  complex  sentence,  it  be 
comes  2i  inincipal  cletnent  oj  the  third  class. 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES.  131 

280.  The  substantive  clause  only  can  be  used 
as  a  principal  element. 

I.— THE   SUBSTANTIVE    CLAUSE  AS  SUBJECT. 

281.  The  substantive  clause,  like  the  substan- 
tive or  substantive  phrase,  may  become  the  subject 
of  a  sentence ;  as,  "  That  the  earth  revolves  on  its 
axis,  has  been  clearly  proved." 

282.  By  the  idiom  mentioned  in  H  196,  the  sub- 
stantive clause,  as  subject,  is  first  represented  by  it 
standing  at  the  head  of  the  sentence,  and  is  itself 
placed  after  the  predicate  ;  as,  "  It  has  been  clearly 
proved  that  the  earth  involves  on  its  axis.^^ 

Models  for  Analysis  and  Parsing. 

Who  was  the  author  of  Junius^s  Letters,  has  never 
been  satisfactorily  determined. 

It  is  a  complex  sentence,  because  it  contains  a  principal 

and  a  subordinate  clause. 

Who  rMS  the  author  of  Junius'' s  Letters^  is  the  subject  of 

the  principal  clause. 

Has  ieen  determined  is  the  predicate. 

The  Dr<wlMmte is  limited  by  "  satisfactorily."  an  ad- 
verbial element  of  the  first  class,  de- 
noting manner, 

WJio  vjas  the  author,  &c.,  is  a  principal  element  of  th^  third 

class.  It  is  used  as  a  noun  third 
person,  singular  number,  neuter  gen- 
der, nommative  case,  and  is  the  sub- 
ject of  the  sentence;  acccrding  to 
Rule  I. 


132  ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES, 

IVho  . is    the  subject   of   the    subordinate 

clause,  and 

Was  author is  the  predicate. 

Author is  limited  first  by  "  the,"  and  second- 
ly by  "  of  Juniu^'s  Letters." 

Who is  an  interrogative  pronoun,  used  in  a 

subordinate  clause.  It  has  no  ante- 
cedent. It  is  of  the  third  person, 
singular  number,  masculine  gender, 
nominative  case,  and  is  the  subject  of 
"  was ; "  according  to  rule  IV.  It 
connects  the  two  dissimilar  clauses, 
according  to  Rule  XVI. 

Note.     "  Wlto  was  author"  may  be  considered  as  the  gram- 
matical  subject  of  the  complex  sentence,  and  "  Who  was  the  au 
thor  of  Junius' s  Letters^'  the  logical  subject.     The  connection  of 
who  will  be  best  seen  by  using  the  idiom  in  IT  282. 

Exercise  44. 

Analyze  the  following  complex  sentences  according 
to  the  model :  — 

.  That  the  earth  is  a  sphere,  is  easily  proved.  That  honor 
and  fame  are  the  offspring  of  labor,  is  the  eternal  law  of 
nature.  That  sorrow  robed  the  happy  home  in  mourning, 
was  enough.  That  no  man  is  justified  by  the  law  in  the 
sight  of  God,  is  evident.  Whether  the  truth  will  be  made 
to  appear,  is  uncertain.  1  That  a  peculiar  insensibility  exists 
to  the  obligations  of  the  parental  and  filial  relation,  is  too 
evident  to  need  any  extended  illustration. ,  That  children 
may  grow  up  as  they  please,  seems  to  be  the  prevalent 
opinion.  Where  the  robber  concealed  his  stolen  treasures, 
has  never  been  ascertained.  When  letters  were  first  used, 
is  not  certain.  Why  he  resigned  his  office,  will  soon  be 
made  known.     How  he  made  b's  escape,  is  a   mystery. 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES.  133 

From  what  place  he  came, cannot  be  ascertained.  In  what 
manner  he  did  it,  is  wholly  unknown.  Who  gave  the  in- 
formation, has  been  ascertained.  Will  he  do  it?  is  the 
question. 

Write  the  above  sentences,  and  introduce  each  by 
''  it." 

Model.     It  is  the  eternal  law  of  nature,  that  honor  anJ 
fame  are  the  offspring  of  labor. 

Write  substantive  clauses  to  complete  the  following ; 
and  then  change  them  so  as  to  place  the  subject  before 
the  predicate,  dispensing  ivith  ''  it :  "  — 

It  is  evident.  It  is  uncertain.  It  appears.  It  has  been 
ascertained.  It  is  mysterious.  It  is  well  known.  It  will 
be  shown.  It  is  true.  It  is  probable.  It  was  denied  by 
none. 

Model.     It.  is  evident  that  the  bill  will  be  defeated  ■=. 
That  the  bill  will  be  defeated,  is  evident. 

Lxpand  the  following  substantives  and  infini- 
tives, with  the  ivords  joined  to  them  in  Italics,  into 
substantive  clauses  used  as  subjects:  — 

To  swear  is  impious.  To  err  is  human.  Tlie  utility 
of  the  telegraph  is  acknowledged.  The  name  of  the  swim- 
mer  is  not  known.  Your  abuse  of  ?ny  brother  is  repre- 
hensible. The  place  of  his  concealment  has  not  been  de- 
termined. TJie  time  of  the  boat'^s  op^rival  was  well  known. 
For  him  to  eat  unripe  fruit  was  presumption.  The  cause 
of  his  delay  is  unknown.  The  immortality  of  the  soul  i? 
UQDversally  believed.  The  paleness  of  the  ink  is  apparent 
The  authenticity  of  the  Scriptures  has  been  clearly  proved. 

Model.     17iat  one  should  sioear,  is  impious.     That  thf: 
telegraph  is  usefid,  is  acknowledged. 
12 


134  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 

Reduct  any  twelve  of  the  preceding  substantive 
clauses  to  nouns  or  hifinitives. 

Model.     The  sphericity  of  the  earth  is  easily  proved. 

II.— THE   PREDICATE, 

283.  The  substantive  clause  may  become  the 
predicate-nominative  after  to  he ;  as,  '"•  His  pretext 
was,  that  he  misunderstood  the  design  of  the  leader. ^^ 

Note.      This    construction    will  not  need    a  separate   model 
since  it  is  like  the  model  on  the  29th  page,  with  the  exception 
that  the  predicate-nominative  is  expanded  into  a  clause.     See 
also  the  preceding  model. 

Exercise  45. 

Analyze  the  following  complex  sentences,  and  parse 
the  predicates :  — 

My  desire  is,  that  you  may  succeed.  <The  question  is, 
How  shall  the  treasury  be  replenished  \  His  pretence  was, 
4hat  the  storm  of  the  preceding  evening  prevented  his 
attendance.  Our  hope  is,  that  no  such  results  will  follow. 
Your  belief  is,  that  the  enemy  has  crossed  the  mountain. 
His  remark  was,  that  such  service  is  exceedingly  humil- 
iating. The  promise  made  him  was,  that  he  should  visit 
his  friends  the  coining  autumn.  My  determination  is,  that 
you  shall  attend  school  in  the  country. 

Write  complex  sentences  to  the  following  subjects, 
and  let  the  predicates  be  substantive  clauses. 

Question,  answer,  recommendation,  proposal,  design, 
words,  orders,  resolution. 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES.  135 


SECTION    III. 

SUBORDINATE    CLAUSES    USED    AS    THE     ADJECTIVE 

ELEMENT. 

284.  Whenever  a  clause  is  used  to  limit  a  no  an 
or  pronoun  in  either  of  the  ways  mentioned  in 
^  96,  (a.  b.  c.  d.)  it  is  an  adjective  element  of  the  third 
class;  as,  "A  man  who  is  industrious,  will  gain 
respect.-" 

(rt.)  The  adjective  element  of  the  tliird  class  asserts  (in  a  sub; 
ordinate  way)  what,  in  either  of  the  other  classes,  is  assumed. 
Compare  "  a  man  who  is  industrious^''  with  "  a  man  of  indus- 
try," or  "an  industrious  man." 

285.  A  noun  may  be  limited  either  by  an  adjec- 
live  clause  or  a  substantive  clause  used  as  an  ad- 
jective. 

L  — ADJECTIVE   CLAUSES. 

286.  Adjective  clauses  are  introduced  by  relative 
pronouns,  which  serve  to  connect  them  with  a 
limited  noun  or  pronoun  which  is  called  the  antece- 
dent;  as,  *'  The  evil  that  men  do  lives  after  them." 

(a.)  The  relative  pronoun,  refers  to  some  limiting  adjective  in 
the  principal  clause,  either  expressed  or  understood,  called  its  cor- 
relative; as,  "  That  book  which  you  hav;^  was  printed  in  1760." 

287.  The  relative  pronouns  are,  — 
Who,  relating  to  a  person ;  — 
Which,  relating  to  a  thing ;  — 

That,  relating  to  either  a  person  or  tiling  ;  —  and 


k.S6  ANALYSIS    OF     SENTENCES. 

PVhat.  whatever,  whatsoever,  whoever,  whosoever, 
whichever,  and  whichsoever,  called  compound 
pronouns,  because  they  represent  both  the  an- 
tecedent and  relative. 

( a.)  Who  is  sometimes  used  as  a  compound  pronoun ;  as- 
'  Who  steals  my  purse,  steals  trasl   " 

(b.)  The  relatives,  with  their  correlatives,  may  be  thus  repre- 
pented  :  — 

CORREL.  ReL. 

The,  \  r  mw. 

This,  that,        \   Person  (s)  or  thing  (s)    /   Wiich. 
These,  those,    \  '  I  That. 


288.  The  agreement  of  the  relative  is  deter- 
mined bv  the  folio wino:  rule  :  — 

Rule  XVII.  The  relative  must  agree  with 
its  antecedent  in  person,  number,  and  gender, 
but  not  in  case.     # 

( a.)  When  the  antecedent  is  compound,  the  relative  agrees  with 
it  by  Rule  XII.  (161 ;)  when  it  is  a  collective  noun,  the  rule  which 
applies  to  the  verb  (60,  h.)  is  equally  applicable  to  the  pronoun. 

289.  The  case  of  the  relative  depends  upon  the 
construction  of  the  adiective  clause. 

(a.)  The  relative  may  be  the  subject  (56)  of  the  adjective 
clause  ;  as,  "  The  tempest ic/«'c/i  was  raging  with  unwonted  fury, 
drove  them  to  the  nearest  shelter."  In  this  relation  of  the  pro- 
noun, the  adjective  clause  may  be  equivalent,  1st,  to  an  adjective 
or  participle  denoting  some  property  of  the  antecedent,  (96,  b.)  : 
as,  "  A  man  icho  perseveres  will  be  honored  "  =  "  A  persevering 
man  will  be  honored  ;  "  —  2d,  to  a  noun  or  .pronoun  in  apposition, 
(■96,  c.)  ;  as,  "■  Paul,  2vho  teas  an  apostle,  visited  Rome  "  =  "  Paul, 
an  apostle,  visited  Rome  ;  "  3d,  to  a  noun  in  the  possessive  case, 
(96,  d.)  ;  as,  "  Solovions  temple  was  destroyed  "  =  "  The  tempio 
which  was  built  hy  Solomon  was  destroyed." 

(b.)  The  relative  may  become  the  adjective  element  of  its 
clause ;  as,  "  The    gentleman   whose   aid  teas  solicited  has  If  ft 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  l3'' 

town.  '  In  T  i  relation  of  the  pronoun,  the  antecedent  or  lim- 
ited word  is  epresented  as  a  possessor;  the  relative  is  parsed 
by  Rule  VID  .,  page  55. 

(c.)  The  relative  may  become  the  objective  element  (117)  of  it. 
clause  ;  as,  "  The  book  which  I  purchased  is  damaged."  In  this  re 
lation  of  the  relative,  the  adjective  clause  is  equivalent  to  the  pas 
sive  participle ;  as,  "  The  book  purchased  by  me  was  damaged." 

(d.)  The  relative  with  a  preposition  may  become  the  adverbial 
dement  (217)  of  the  adjective  clause ;  as,  "  The  house  in  which 
he  lived  has  passed  into  other  hands."  In  this  relation  of  the 
relative  pronoun,  the  adjective  clause  is  equivalent  to  an  adjective 
denoting  place,  time,  cause,  or  manner.  The  preposition  is  not 
unfrequently  placed  at  the  end  of  the  clause  ;  as,  "  The  house 
which  he  lived  m  has  passed,"  &c. 

Note.  It  not  unfrequently  happens,  that  the  adjective  clause, 
in  this  last  case,  assumes  the  form  of  an  adverbial  clause,  an 
equivalent  relative  adverb  taking  the  place  of  the  relative  pro- 
noun and  preposition ;  as,  "  The  time  in  which  Priam  lived  is 
uncertain  "  =i "  The  time  tchen  Priam  lived,"  &c.  When  the 
antecedent  is  suppressed,  such  clauses  are  strictly  adverbial. 

290.  Compound  relatives  represent  both  the 
antecedent  and  relative;  as,  "What  cannot  be 
cured  must  be  endured  "  = ''  That  which  cannot  be 
cured  must  be  endured." 

(o.)  In  such  examples  as  the  last,  the  antecedent  and  adjective 
clause  which  limits  it,  are  equivalent  to  a  substantive  ;  as,  "  Jin 
incurable  evil  must  be  endured."  The  compound  relative,  as 
antecedent,  is  the  subject  of  "  must  be  endured  ;  "  as  relative,  ia 
the  subject  of  "can  be  cured."  Sometimes  it  is  the  subject  oi 
one  verb,  and  the  object  of  the  other. 

291.  By  an  ellipsis  of  the  relative  pronoun,  as 
takes  its  place  after  such,  many,  and  same ;  as, 
"  Such  as  I  have  give  I  unto  you  "  ==  "  Such  as 
that  is  which  I  have  give,"  &c. 

292.  Relative  pronouns  often  relate,  not  to  a 
word,    but   to    a   preceding  phrase   or  clause;   as 

12* 


138  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 

"  The   boy    closed   the   blinds,  which  darkened  the 
room.^^ 

293.  Clauses  introduced  by  relative  pronouns 
are  sometimes  nearly  equivalent  to  iiidependent 
clauses  connected  by  "  and."  The  relative,  in  such 
cases,  is  equivalent  to  -'and  he,"  "and  she,"  or 
'and  it;  "  as,  "He  gave  me  a  book,  which  he  re- 
quested me  to  read  "  :=r  '«  He  gave  me  a  book^  and 
requested  me  to  read  z^." 


11.— SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSES. 

294.  A  substantive  clause  is  often  used  to  ex- 
plain the  meaning  of  a  noun  ;  a^,  "  The  question 
hoiv  we  shall  obtain  funds,  has  never  been  raised  ;  " 
"  The  liope  that  he  should  soon  be  released,  sustained 
him."  ^ 

(a.)  The  substantive  clause,  thus  used,  resembles  the  noun  in 
apposition,  and  may  be  considered  as  bearing  the  same  relation  to 
the  construction  in  U  283  as  the  noun  in  apposition  does  to  the 
predicate-nominative,  If  60,  (a.) 

Models  for  Analysis. 

A  man  who  finds  not  satisfaction  in  himself,  seeks 
for  it  in  vain  elsewhere. 

It  is  a  pothplex  sentence,  because  it  contains  two 
dissimilar  clauses. 

Man is   the    subject    of    the    principal 

clause. 

Seeks IS  the  predicate. 

The  subject is  limited  by  "  a,"  also  by  the  clause 


ffl 


ANALYSIS    OF     SENTENCES.  139 

"  wlio  finds  not  satisfaction  in  him* 
seif,"  an  adjective  element  of  the 
third  class,  describing  "  man,"  ( 103.) 

The  complex  subject .  .  is  "  A  man  who  finds  not  satisfac- 
tion in  himself." 

The  predicate is  limited  by  "  for  it,"  ''  in  vain," 

and  "■  elsewhere."  (Give  the  name 
and  class  of  each.) 

The  complex  predicate  is  "  seeks  for  it  in  vain  elsewhere." 

Who is  the  subject  of  the  adjective  clause. 

Finds is  the  predicate. 

The  predicate is  limited,  first,  by  "  not ; "  sec- 
ondly, by  "  satisfaction  ;  "  and 
thirdly,  by  "  in  himself"  (Give 
the  name  and  class  of  each.) 

Who is  a  relative  pronoun,  of  the  third 

person,  singular  number,  masculine 
gender,  according  to  Rule  XVII. ;  is 
the  subject  of  the  proposition  "  who 
finds,"  &c.,  according  to  Rule  I., 
and  connects  this  proposition  with 
"  man,"  the  subject  of  the  principal 
clause,  according  to  Rule  XVI. 


Exercise  46. 

Analyze  the  following  examples^  and  parse  the  rel- 
ative pronouns  :  — 

The  rewards  which  are  promised,  shall  be  given.  Can- 
not the  man  who  is  faithfully  attached  to  religion  be  relied 
on  with  confidence  }  He  whom  I  loved  is  dead.  Will 
not  those  vvho  raise  envy  incur  censure  ^  The  globe  on 
vir'hieh  wo  live,  i?  but  a  planet.     Xerxes,  upon  whom  For* 


140  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 

tune  had  lavished  all  her  favors,  proposed  a  reward  to  the 
mventor  of  a  new  pleasure.  Whatever  violates  nature 
cannot  be  innocent.  Whoever  forgets  a  benefit,  is  an 
enerpy  to  society.  Will  not  he  whose  desires  are  bound 
less,  always  be  restless  ?  The  assumption  that  our  cause 
is  declining,  is  utterly  gi'atuitous.  The  opinion  that  chil- 
dren may  grow  up  as  they  please,  seems  to  prevail.  The 
reason  why  he  left  his  mother  in  such  peril,  has  never 
been  satisfactorily  given. 

fVrite  tiventy  sentences ,  limiting  the  subject  of  each 
hj  an  adjective  clause.  In  Jive,  let  the  relative  be  the 
subject  of  its  clause ;  in  five^  let  it  be  the  adjective 
element ;  in  fve,  the  objective  element ;  and  in  five, 
let  it  be  an  adverbial  element.  Let  ten  of  the  sen- 
tences  be  interrogative. 

Reduce  the  adjective  clauses  hi  the  first  part  of  this 
exercise  to  simple  or  complex  elemeiits  of  the  first  or 
lecond.  class. 

Model.     The  promised  rewards  shall  be  given. 

Convert  the  folloiving  simple  sentences  into  complex 
sentences,  by  expanding  the  Italicized  adjective  ele- 
ments into  clauses  :  — - 

The  pride  of  loealth  is  contemptible.  The  iDell-hred  man 
desires  only  to  please.  Reproof  given  in  piihlic  hardens 
the  heart.  Milton  the  poet  wixs  blind.  \  The  sun,  vicege- 
rent of  his  power,  shall  rend  the  veil  of  parting  night.  A 
cottage  shaded  with  trees  is  a  pleasant  object.  The  but- 
terfly, child  of  the  summer,  flutters  in  the  sun.  Csesar,  the 
enslaver  of  his  country,  was  stabbed  in  the  senate-house. 
The  house  of  my  father  stands  near  the  road.  My  brother^ s 
dog  was  killed. 

Model.     The  pride  which  wealth  begets  is  contemptible. 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES.        '    141 

Change  them  to  interrogative  sentences. 

Model.     Is   not   the   pride    which  wealth   begets   con- 
temptible ? 

Write  complex  sentences  to'  the  following  compound 
iuhjects,  limiting  each  by  an  adjective  clause  '  — 

The  boy  or  the  girl.  The  sun  and  moon.  James  or 
John.  The  fox  and  the  geese.  Not  the  servant,  but  the 
master.  Susan,  and  not  the  sister.  Neither  the  man  nor 
the  woman.  Those  books  or  slates.  This  boy  or  his 
parents.     Some  insect  or  reptile.     Those  trees  or  shrubs.   . 

Model.     The  boy  or  the  girl  who  painted  this  picture 
,   deserves  much  praise. 


SECTION    IV. 

SUBORDINATE    CLAUSES   USED   AS    THE    OBJECTIVE 

ELEMENT. 

295.  When   a  clause   is   used   to   complete   the 
meaning  of  a^transitive  verb,  it  is  an  objective  element 
of  the  third  class  ;  as,  "  I  perceive  that  you  have  or 
dered  a  supply.''^ 

L^  SINGLE   OBJECT 

296.  Substantive  clauses  in  the  objective,  gen- 
erally follow  verbs  denoting,  —  1st.  Some  act  or  state 
of  the   mind  (as   perception,  emotion,  or  will;)  — 
2d.   A  declaration,  order,  or  statement ;  as,  ''  I  vnsh 
that  you  would  assist  me  ;  "   "  The  farmer  declared 


142  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 

thai  his  watch  had  gained  half  an   h®ur    in  thei 
night." 

(a.)  The  following  are  some  of  the  verbs  of  the  first  class  :  — 
see^  hear,  feel,,  knoio,  f/im/ij^^erceizje^  wish,  anticipate,  pray,  entreaty 
desire,  imagine,  suppose,  expect,  hope,  fear,  suspect,  understand^ 
&c.  The  following  are  of  the  second:  —  saij,  declare,  tell,  an- 
nounce, relate,  assert,  ajfirvi,  proclaim,  report,  state,  notify,  shoio^ 
reT*ly,  cnsiver,  respond,  foretell,  deny,  order,  command,  direct. 

297.  Substantive  clauses  may  follow  adjectives , 
and  even  nouns,  derived  from  these  verbs  ;  as,  ''1 
am  desirous  that  you  should  visit  the  country  ;  " 
"  A  tvish  that  you  might  participate  in  our  joy,  has 
led  me  to  make  you  this  offer." 

Note.     For  the  classes  of  substantive  clauses,  and  their  con 
nectives,  see  IT  274,  276. 

298,  To  objective  clauses  properly  belong  the 
forms  of  language  called 


Direct  and  Indirect  (|iiotation. 

299.  When  we  quote  the  language  of  another, 
.ve  may  either  represent  him  as  uttering  his  own 
words,  or  we  may  narrate  them  for  him  ;  as,  ''  He 
said,  '  I  will  do  it '  "  =  "  He  said  that  he  would  do  it^ 
The  former  is  called  direct,  and  the  latter  indirect^ 
quotation. 

(a.)  In  direct  quotation,  the  quotation  marks  (  "  ")  should  bo 
ased.  In  indirect  quotation,  the  connective  that  should  intro- 
duce the  quotation,  (unless  it  be  a  question.)  The  person  of  the 
subject,  the  mode  and  tense  of  the  verb,  and  the  arrangement  of 
the  parts,  should  be  changed,  if  necessary.    (See  example  above.) 

(&.)  Instead  of  a  single  clause,  sometimes  whole  pages  are 
quoted  as  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb. 

( c.)    Direct  quotation  approaches  much  nearer  to  a  coordinate 


ANALYSIS    OF     SENTENCES.  143 

rank  with  the  principal  clause,  than  indirect.  The  subordinate 
connective  that  is  never  used )  and  when  the  quoted  language 
is  a  question,  the  interrogation  point  should  always  be  employed. 
( <Z  )  Both  direct  and  indirect  quotation,  instead  of  being  the 
object  of  a  verb,  may  often  be  put  in  apposition  with  some  noun  ; 
as,  "  The  question  hoio  we  shall  do  it,  has  never  been  asiied  '  = 
"  The  question,  '  How  shall  we  do  it  ?  '  "  has  never  been  asked. 

300.  The  principal  clause  is  often  thrown  in  be- 
tween the  parts  of  a  direct  quotation  ;  as,  "  *  For  all 
that,'  said  the  pendulum,  'it  is  very  dark  here.'  " 

301.  The  quotation  often  becomes  the  principal 
clause,  and  the  principal  is  made  a  subordinate- 
adverbial  clause,  introduced  by  as  to  denote  the 
authority  on  which  the  quoted  assertion  is  made ; 
as,  "  He  left,  as  he  told  me,  before  the  arrival  of  the 
steamer." 

Note.     Such  subordinate  clauses' are  nearly  allied  to  modal  ad 
verbs.     In  such  constructions,  the  quotation  marks  are  not  to  be 
used. 

302.  Direct  quotation  can  be  changed  to  indirect, 
by  removing  the  quotation  marks,  inserting  a  con- 
nective, and  making  the  requisite  changes  of  jjerson, 
mode,  tense,  SLiid  arrangement,     {'^  299.  a.) 

IL  — DOUBLE    OBJECT. 

303.  Besides  an  objective  clause,  certain  verbs 
take  an  indirect  object,  either  with  or  without  a 
preposition  ;  as,  "  We  told  him  that  he  was  in  dan- 
e;er  ;  "  "  He  intimated  to  me  that  my  services  ivould 
soon  be  needed. ^^ 

(a)    It  will   be  seen  that  a  single  objective  clause  is  equiva. 
tent  to  two  objects  like  those  mentioned  in  1II20  and  210.     Iht* 


144  ANALYSTS  OF  SENTENCES. 

Tormer  Ibecomes  its  subject,  and  the  latter  its  predicate  ;  a3»  *»  I 
believed  him  an  honest  man  "  =  "  1  believed  that  he  loas  an  honest, 
man."     "  I  wish  you  to  go  "  =  "  I  wish  that  you  would  go." 

(b.)  Sometimes  the  substantive  clause  itself  is  an  indirect 
object ;  —  1st.  Without  a  preposition  ;  as,  "  I  was  informed  thai 
he  had  arrived  =  of  his  arrival ;  "  —  2d,  With  a  preposition  ;  as, 
*'  I  was  speaking  of  how  ice  should  cancel  the  dernand;  "  "  Much 
will  depend  071  loho  the  commissioners  are." 

304.  When  the  principal  verb  assumes  the  pas- 
sive form,  the  objective  clause  becomes  the  subject, 
but  commonly  remains  after  the  predicate,  being 
represented  by  it  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the 
sentence,  (282 ;)  as,  "He  said  that  the  measure 
could  never  be  adopted"  =  '^  It  was  said  (by  him) 
that  the  measure  could  never  be  adopted." 

Model  for  Analyzing  and  Parsing. 

Do  you  Icnoiv  that  you  have  wronged  mm  1 

It  is  a  complex  sentence,  because  it  is  composed  of  dis- 
similar clauses;  interrogative^  because  it  aslcs  a  ques- 
tion ;  direct.^  because  it  requires  an  affirmation  or  denial. 

You is  the  subject  of  the  pnncipal  clause. 

Do  know  ....  is  the  predicate. 

The  predicate .  is  limited  by  "  that  you  have  wronged 
him,"  an  objective  element  of  the  third 
class,  denoting  lohat  is  known.  It  is  used 
as  a  noun,  third  person,  singular  number 
neuter  gender,  and  is  the  object  of  "  dc 
know,"  according  to  Rule  VIIL  "  Do 
know  that  yoa  have  wronged  him,"  istho 
complex  predicate. 

You  .......  is  the  subject  of  the  subordinate  clatise. 

}{ave  wronged  is  the  predicate. 


ANA^SIS    OF    SENTENCES.  145 

rhe  predicate  is  jimited  by  "  him,"  a  simple  objective 
element,  &c. 

Tltat is  a  subordinate  conjunction,  and  connects 

the  substantive  clause,  "you  have  wror:ged 
him,"  to  the  predicate  of  the  princ'jia.1 
clause,  "  know,"  according  to  Rule  XVI. 

Exercise  47. 

Analyze  the  following  propositions    according  to 
tht   model :  — 

I  believed  that  all  these  objects  existed  within  me.  1 
know  not  whether  he  will  gq.  /  Will  you  tell  me  whom  you 
saw  on  the  Mall  ?"  We  knew  whose  place  v/as  vacated. 
i  knew  not  where  i  was.  Will  you  tell  me  why  you  are 
-  sad  ?  /  The  teacher  showed  me  wherein  I  had  erred.  JMy 
uncle  explained  how  the  seasons  are  produced.  Will  you 
snow  me  why  we  invert  the  divisor  ?  "  I  admire,"  said 
Aristodemus,  "'  Homer  for  his  epic  poetry."  "  I  always 
thought,"  said  he,  "  that  philosophy  ^  seiwed  to  make  men 
happier."  They  said,  "  Thou  hast  saved  our-  lives." 
'^  King  of  MoiTen,"  Carthon  said,  "  I  fall  in  the  midst  of 
my  course."  They  say  that  they  have  bought  it.  The 
truly  great  consider,  first,  how  they  may  gain  the  approba- 
tion of  God.     He  inquired,  "  Who  comes  there  ? "     • 

Write  ten  sentences,  and  let  each  contain  an  ob- 
jective clause  illustrating  direct  quotation.  Change 
each  to  the  form  of  indirect  quotation,  and  change 
Jive  of  them  into  interrogative  sentences. 

Model.     '4  have  endeavored,"  said  Socrates,  "  thrcigh- 
out  life,  to  do  nothing  unjust "  =i  Socrates  said  thut 
he    had   endeavored,  throughout  life,  to  do   nothing 
unjust.      Did  no    Socrates  say  that  he  had  endeav- 
ored, &c.  .'  ^     "; 

13 


146  ANALYSIS     OF     SENTEm^ES. 

Convert  the  foUowing  objects,  with  their  attrihutei 
Into  objective  clauses :  —- 

1  thought  him  honest.  1  wish  you  to  inform  me  of  ike 
fojct.  We  desired  her  to  stay.  The  general  commanded 
the  army  to  march.  The  ancients  believed  the  earth  to  be 
a  vast  plain.  Some  suppose  the  planets  to  be  inhabited. 
The  lunatic  often  imagines  himself  a  king. 

Model.     I  thought  that  he  was  honest. 

Expajid  the  following  nouns,  with  the  words  belong- 
ing  to  them  in  Italics,  into  objective  clauses :  — 

i  forgot  the  time  of  the  lecture.  Socrates  taught  the  im- 
•nwrtality  oj  the  soul.  Do  you  believe  the  truth  of  these 
reports  ?  Explain  the  cause  of  the  tides.  Show  me  tht 
mode  of  its  operation.  We  anticipate  a  pleasant  day- 
The  officer  found  the  place  of  his  concealment.  Did  you 
hear  of  his  illness  ?  Who  told  you  of  our  success  ?  1 
wish  to  go.  He  expects  to  be  appointed.  Will  you  tell  us 
the  object  of  this  rneeting  7  The  heathen  believe  iri  a  plu- 
rality  oj'  gods. 

Write  complex  sentences,  employing  the  following 
words,  and  let  the  two  words  between  the  semicolons 
he  the  subjects,  the  first  of  the  principal  clause, 
and  the  second  of  the  subordinate  clause  :  — 

Fox,  grapes ;  boy,  ink ;  Solomon,  wisdom  ;  poet,  man , 
teacher,  pupils ;  Washington,  riation ;  Columbus,  conti- 
nent; brother,  hand;  father,  son;  George,  geography; 
general,  army. 

Model.     The  fox  said  that  the  grapes  were  sour. 

Select  ten  sentences  from  your  Hi'^^cm,  o^  any  othe^ 
book,  containing  objective   ;?nv9^» 


ANALYsis  OF  SENTENCES.  147 

Change  the  verbs  of  any  Jive  of  the  above  exarripki 
to  (he  passive  form.     (304.) 


SECTION    V. 

SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES  USED  AS  THE  ADVERBIA 

ELEMENT. 

805.  A  clause  added  to  the  predicate  to  denote 
some  circumstance  connected  with  it  is  an  adverbial 
clement  of  the  third  class  ;  as,  "I  was  agreeably  de- 
ceived, as  I  approached  the  place.^' 

306.  An  adverbial  clause  is  introduced  by  some 
conjunction,  or  conjunctive  adverb,  which  relates  to 
some  adverb,  expressed  or  understood,  in  the  prin- 
cipal clause,  called  its  correlative  ;  as,  '*  We  must  go 
(thither)  whither  the  master  leads." 

(rt.)  The  connective  and  its  correlative  are  equivalent  to  two 
phrases  ;  as,  "  I  will  go  cohere  he  lives  "  =  "  I  will  go  to  the  place^ 
(there)  in  which  (where)  he  lives." 

307.  Adverbial  clauses,  like  tlieir  corresponding 
adverbs,  or  phrases,  may  denote  place,  tiine,  causcj  or 
manner. 

Model  for  Analysis. 

When   the   wicked  are    multipliedy  transgression   in 

creaseth. 
It  is  a  complex  sentence.     (Why  ?) 

Transgression is  the  subject  of  the  principal  clause 

Increaseih is  the  predicate 


148  ANALYSIS     JF     SENTENCES. 

The  predicate  .  is  limited  by  "  when  tlie  wicked  are  multi 
plied,"  an  adverbial  element  of  the  third 
class,  denoting ^im6.     (See  Rule  IX.)     The 
complex   predicate  is,  "  increaseth  when 
the  wicked  are  multiplied." 

Wicked is  the  subject  of  the  subordinate  clause. 

Are  multiplied  is  the  predicate. 

Wlien is   a   subordinate  connective,  (conjunctive 

adverb  of  time,)  and  joins  the  adverbial 
clause  which  it  introduces  to  the  predicate 
of  the  principal  clause,  according  to  Hule 
XVI.  It  limits  "  are  multiplied  "  and 
"  increaseth,"  according  to  Rule  IX. 

L-^  CLAUSES  DENOTING  PLACE. 

308.  The  three  relations  of  place  (128,  218 j 
are  indicated  by  whither,  whejice,  and  where:  as, 
"  Where  your  treasure  is,  there  will  your  heart  be 
also.^' 

309.  Some  adverbs  of  place  admit  of  campari- 
son ;  as,  "  The  prisoner  reached  as/ar  as  his  chain 
would  allow,"  or,  "  no  farther  than  his  chain,"  &c. 

(a.)  The  principal  conjunctive  adverbs  of  place  are,  wherc^ 
whither^  whence^  wherever^  jchitkersoever  ;  and  the  phrases,  as  far 
aSf  as  long  as,  farther  than. 

Exercise  48. 

Analyze  the  folloiving  sentences :  — 

f  The  soldiers  stopped  where  night  overtook  them.  Where 
your  treasure  is,  there  will  your  heart  be  also.  '  Whereso- 
ever th^  carcass  is,  thpre  will  the  eagles  be  gathered  lO' 
gether.  ;  I  will  go  whither  you  direct. 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES.  149 

Where'er  we  tread,  'tis  haunted,  holy  ground.  Where 
true  religion  has  prevented  one  crime,  false  religions  have 
afforded  a  pretext  lor  a  thousand.  Where  all  is  merce- 
nary, nothing  can  be  magnanimous.  Thou  knewest  that  1 
reap  where  I  sowed  not!  Whither  1  go,  ye  cannot  come 
!  travelled  where  disappointment  smiles  at  hope's  career 
Where  there  is  no  law,  there  is  no  transgression. 

VVTiere  the  olive  leaves  were  twinkling  in  every  wind  that  blew, 
There  sat  beneath  the  pleasant  shade  a  damsel  of  Peru. 

Let  me  alone,  that  I  may  take  comfort  a  little  before  T  go 
whence  I  shall  not  return. 

fVrite  ten  sentences,  introducing  an  adverbial 
clause  denoting  place, 

Il.—  CLAUSEIS  DENOTING    TIME. 

310.  Adverbial  clauses  denoting  time   are  con- 
nected with  their  princijmi  clauses  by  conjunctiv 
jidveros  of  time. 

311.  These  adverbial  clauses,  like  adverbs,  or 
adverbial  phrases  of  time,  answer  the  questions, 
When  1     How  long  1     Hoiu  often  1 

(a.)    The  last  of  these  relations  (How  otlen  P)  is  generally  ex- 
pressed by  comparison.    "  1  will  go  as  often  as  yon  send  for  me." 

312.  Adverbial  clauses  denoting  time,  like 
phrases,  mark  a  specified  time,  (79,  a.)  antecedent 
to,  simultaneous  with,  or  subsequent  to,  the  event 
expressed  by  the  principal  verb. 


EXAMPLE. 

^  hefore  the  mail  arrived. 
Edward  was  writing^  whe7i  the  mail  arrived. 

^  after  the  mail  arrived, 
13* 

r 


150  ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES. 

Note.  See  table,  Ti  79,  (c.)  and  form  a  similar  one,  m  wh:ch  an 
adverbial  clause  shall  mark  the  specified  time. 

313.    Clauses,  like  phrases,  may  denote  a  pohit, 

a  period,  or  frequency^  of  time. 

(a.)  The  principal  conjunctive  adverbs  denoting  time  are, 
lofien^  tohile,  wJiilst,  as,  before,  after,  ere,  till,  until,  since,  iolien- 
tver  ;  and  the  phrases,  as  long  as,  as  soon  as,  the  moment,  the  in- 
stant, no  sooner  .  .  .  than. 

(6.)  The  following  table  will  show  the  different  relations  of 
these  connectives :  — 

Point ...     =  when,   as,  whenever,  as 
soon  as. 
1.   Time  simultaneous.  <(   Period  .  .  .  =  ichile,  whilst,  as  long  as 

Frequency  =  as  often  as,^  as  frequent- 
ly ai. 
Point  ,  .  .  .  =  before,  ere. 

II.  Time  antecedent.  .  .  }  ^^^'""^  "    ==  ^^"'  "^^^^• 

Frequency  =  as  often  as,  as  frequently 

as. 
Point .  .  .  .  =  after. 

III.  Time  subsequent. .  .  J  Period  .  .  .  =  since. 

Frequency  =  as  often  as,  as  frequently 

as. 

(c.)  IVJiile,  whilst,  and  as  long  as,  denote  the  duration,  till  and 
until,  the  commenceincnt,  and  since,  the  termination,  of  a  period. 

( d)    In  clauses  denoting  time,  there  is  often  an  ellipsis  of  the 
subject  and  verb;  as,  "  When  reflecting  loith  grief  and  astonish 
ment  upon  this  great  change,  1  felt  a  degree  of  pain." 

Exercise  49. 

Analyze    the  following    sentences,  and  parse     he 
connectives  :  — 

A  dervise  was  journeying  alone  in  the  desert,  when  two 

*  Frequency  can  apply  to  the  present  only  when  it  denotes  q 
customary  act ;  as,  "  I  visit  the  city  as  ofleff  as  twice  a  year  ' 
(See  note,  p.  10(j., 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES  151 

mcrchaiils  suddenly  met  him.  When  the  million  applaud 
you,  seriously  ask  yourself  what  harm  you  have  done. 
/  When  you  have  nothing  to  say,  say  nothing.  Crom- 
well followed  little  events,  before  he  ventured  to  gov- 
ern great  ones/.  The  age  of  miracles  is  past,  while  that 
of  prejudice  remains.  When  articles  rise,  the  consumer 
rs  the  first  that  suffers.  At  length,  the  dial  instituted 
a  formal  inquiry  as  to  the  cause  of  the  stagnation,  when 
hands,  wheels,  weights,  with  one  voice,  protested  their  in- 
nocence. 

And  all  the  muse's  tales  seem  truly  told, 

Till  the  sense  aches  with  gazing. 

The  moment  the  boat  touched  th^  shore,  he  was  on  "  terra 
firma."  As  we  were  walking  together,  we  met  a  stranger. 
I  have  not  visited  the  city  since  we  dissolved  our  partner- 
ship. As  soon  as  we  came  in  sight,  the  birds  were  fright- 
ened from  the  treo.     I  will  remain  until  you  return. 

Write  twelve  complex  sentences,  introducing  the 
subordinate  clauses,  by  the  connectives  mentioned  in 
11313,  (a.) 

Write  appropriate  clauses,  denoting  time,  to  each  of 
the  folloiving  sentences  :  — 

1  saw  the  smouldering  ruins.  We  heard  a  distant  cry. 
Will  you  answer  my  letter }  The  child  may  attend 
school.  Migratory  birds  return  to  the  north.  You  may 
play.     How  old  were  you  ?     We  should  aid  our  friends. 

Write  Jive  complex  interrogative  sentences,  and 
let  the  dependent  clause  denote  time.  ^ 

III.—  CLAUSES  DENOTING   CAUSAL   RELATIONS. 

314.  These  subordinate  clauses  may  be  consid- 
ered under  four  divisions  :  — 


N 

^ 


152  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 

(«.)  Causal,  —  or  those  which  deno'^e  a  cause  oi 
reason  ;  — 

(b.)  Conditional,  —  or  those  which  denote  a 
condition ;  — 

(c.)    Final,  —  or  those  which  denote  di purpose ;  — 

.{d.)  Adversative, — or  those  which  denote  a 
sause  or  reason  conceded,  as  opposed  to  a  result. 

Clauses  wliich  denote  a  Cause  or  Reason. 

315.  There  are  two  modes  of  representing  the 
relation  of  causal  clauses :  — 

(a.)  When  the  conclusion  or  inference  is  stated, 
and  sustained  by  some  cause  or  reason,  the  latter 
clause  is  called  causal,  and  is  connected  with  the 
principal  clause  by  because,  for,  as,  ivhereas,  since, 
and  inasmuch  as;  as,  "It  must  have  rained  last 
night,  for  the  ground  is  wet.^^ 

(6.)  When  the  cause  or  reason  is  stated  in  an 
independent  proposition,  and  a  conclusion  or  in- 
ference is  deduced  from  it,  the  latter  clause  is  called 
deductive  or  illative,  and  is  commonly  connected 
with  the  preceding  by  a  coordinate  conjunction,  to 
show  its  grammatical  relation,  and  by  therefore^ 
wherefore,  hence,  whence,  consequently,  or  then,  tc 
show  its  logical  or  causal  relation  ;  as,  '^  The  coun- 
try is  infested  with  wolves,  and  therefore  thi 
sheepfolds  should  be   secured. ^^  ^ 

Note.      The    coordinate    conjunction    is   often   omitted ;    as 
"  T|he  future  is  uncertain  ;  therefore  employ  the  present  wisely. 
These  clauses  will  be  more  fully  considered  in  the  chapter  op 
coordinate  clauses. 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES.  153 

316.  Deductive  clauses  may  be  changed  lo 
causal,  or  causal  to  deductive,  by  reversing  the  or- 
der of  statement ;  as,  "  The  sheepfolds  should  be 
secured,  for  the  country  is  infested  with  wolves  "  ^^ 
''  The  country  is  mfested  with  wolves ;  therefore 
the  sheepfolds  should  be  secured." 

( a.)   Therefore  is  properly  the  correlative  of  the  subordinate 
connectives  because,  for,  &c. 

Exercise  50. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences ,  and  point  out 
the  causal  clauses  :  — 

A  peace  which  consults  the  good  of  both  parties,  is  the 
firmest,  because  both  parties  are  interested  in  its  preserva- 
tion. We  hate  some  persons,  because  we  do  not  know 
them.  As  retreat  was  now  impossible,  Colter  turned  the 
head  of  the  canoe.  People  are  happy  because  they  are 
good.  Ye  recoive  me  not,  because  ye  know  him  not. 
Since  you  have  been  intrusted  with  such  treasures,  you 
ought  to  practise  the  utmost  vigilance.  Because  the  wick- 
ed do  not  receive  their  just  deserts  immediately,  they  gTOW 
bold  in  transgression. 

Write  causal  clauses  to  each  one  of  the  conncC' 
tives,  because,  for,  as,  since,  whereas,  inasmuch  as. 

Change  all  the  above  examples  to  deductive  clauses, 
(See  316.) 

Ta'ke  the  corresponding  exercise  (p.  107)  in  Chap- 
ter 11. ,  and  change  all  the  phrases  which  admit  of  it 
into  causal  clauses. 

Write  clauses   ivhich  shall  give  a  reason  for   the 
folio  wing  statements  :  — 

The   tides   rise.     The  moon  is  eclipsed.     We  left  tlie 


154  ANALYSIS    OF    Sii^NTENCES. 

city.  We  should  acquire  knowledge.  We  should  foma 
good  habits  in  youth.  You  should  honor  your  parents. 
Let  us  shun  the  company  of  the  vicious.  Improve  your 
time.  Cultivate  agreeable  manners.  Never  reveal  se« 
crets.  Love  your  enemies.  We  should  never  harm  the 
feelings  of  others.  We  should  sympathize  with  the  suf- 
fering. 

Model.     The  tides  rise  because  the  moon  attracts  the 
water. 

Conditional  Clauses. 

317.  A  conditional  clause  is  an  antecedent  to 
some  effect  or  event,  but  not  necessarily  its  cause. 

318.  Conditional  clauses  are  used  to  limit  the 
principal  clause  by  means  of  some  real  or  supposed 
condition  ;  as,  '^  If  it  rains,  I  shall  not  go." 

319.  When  the  conditional  clause  denotes  some- 
thing actual,  or  assumed  as  actual,  the  tense  form 
of  the  verb  indicates  its  true  time  ;  as,  "  If  it  rains, 
rained,  or  has  rained,  I  shall  not  go." 

320.  When  the  conditional  clause  denotes  some- 
thing supposed  or  hypothetical,  the  tense  form  of  the 
verb  does  not  indicate  its  true  time. 

(  a.)  The  past  tense  represents  present  time ;  the  past  perfect, 
past  time ;  and  the  past  of  the  potential,  future  time ;  as,  "  I  am 
not  going  ;  but  if  I  iccrc  going  (now),  I  should  ride  ;  "  "I  was  not 
going ;  but  if  I  had  been  going  (yesterday),  1  should  have  told 
you;  "  "  I  shall  not  go;  but  if  I  should  go  (hereafter),  I  should 
walk." 

(&.)  Sometimes  there  is  an  ellipsis  of  the  auxiliary  ;  as, ''  If  he 
(should)  come,  we  Avill  ride  into  the  country." 

321.  The  principal  connective  of  conditional 
clauses  is  if.     The  following,  which  may  be  con 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES.  155 

sideied  as  nearly  equivalent  to  if,  are  also  used  '.  — 
unless  {if  not),  though,  lest,  except,  provided  that. 

322.  The  verb  of  the  conditional  clause  is  in 
the  subjunctive  mode,  and  may  be  either  of  the 
indicative  or  potential  form,  (86  ;)  that  of  the  prin- 
cipal clause  is  generally  either  in  the  indicative 
future,  or  in  some  tense  of  the  potential. 

323.  Conditional  clauses  may  become  principal 
clauses,  by  changing  the  subjunctive  to  the  impera- 
tive mode,  and  using  and  instead  of  if;  as,  ''  If  you 
ivill  give  me  an  axe,  1  will  cut  this  tree  "  =  "  Give 
me  an  axe,  and  I  will  cut  this  tree." 

(fl.)  Sometimes  the  condition  is  expressed  by  a  question;  as, 
"Is  any  among  you  afflicted?  let  him  pray  "  =  "  If  any  (one) 
among  you  is  afflicted,  let  him  pray." 

(6.)  By  placing  the  subject  after  the  verb,  or  between  the  aux- 
iliary and  the  verb,  "if"  may  be  omitted  ;  as,  "  Were  he  a  more 
careful  man,  he  would  meet  with  better  success." 

Exercise    51. 

Analyze  the  following  complex  sentences,  and  parse 
the  connectives :  — 

,  If  a  tree  loses  its  leaves  before  the  fruit  is  ripe,  the  latter 
becomes  withered.  If  the  bark  of  a  tree  is  injured,  the  tree 
becomes  sick,  and  finally  dies.  Except  ye  repent,  ye  shall 
all  likewise  perish.  If  you  will  read  my  story,  you  can  judge 
for  yourself.  If  you  would  enjoy  health,  bathe  often.  I 
shall  leave  to-morrow,  unless  my  friend  arrives.  You  may 
return,  if  you  please.  Should  it  rain  to-morrow,  (323,  h.) 
the  lecture  will  be  postponed.  Were  the  cause  good,  he 
would  not  fear  the  attack  of  its  enemies.  Were  patrons 
more  disinterested,  ingratitude  would  be  more  rare      If  we 


156  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES, 

wish  to  cat  glass,  "we  must  have  recourse  to  the  diamond, 
Had  I  acted  from  personal  emiiity,  I  should  justly  be  de- 
spised. If  there  be  any  thing  improper  in  this  address, 
the  singularity  of  your  present  situation  will  excuse  it. 

Write  five  of  the  preceding  examples,  and  change 
the  mode  of  the  conditional  clause  to  the  imperative. 

Model.     Remove  the  leaves  frotn  a  tree  before  the  fruit 
is  ripe,  and  the  latter  becomes  withered. 

Write  conditional  clauses  to  limit  the  following  sen- 
tences used  as  principal  clauses  :  — 

We  shall  go.  You  may  attend  school.  The  moon  will 
be  eclipsed.  The  patient  will  recover.  George  will  im- 
prove. The  ice  will  melt.  The  plants  will  not  thrive. 
The  stream  cannot  be  crossed.  The  labor  must  be  per- 
formed. Remorse  will  ensue.  He  can  perform  the  task. 
Water  will  become  ice.     Fruit  will  not  ripen. 

Model.     We  shall  go,  if  it  is  pleasant. 

Apply  a  consequence  to  the  folloiving  conditions  . 

If  you  leave  ;  should  he  Stay  ;  had  I  stopped  ;  were  the 
measure  to  be  adopted ;  could  we  ascend  the  ladder ;  un- 
less relief  come  immediately ;  if  the  day  should  be  un- 
pleasant ;  should  the  wind  blow ;  except  he  yield  to  the 
proposal ;  provided  that  a  sufficient  number  of  men  can 
be  obtained  ;  if  the  term  closes  on  Saturday. 

Model.     If  you  leave,  no  one  can  supply  your  place. 

Final  Clauses. 

324.  Clauses  which  denote  a  purpose,  or  motive;, 
are  called  final  clauses.  They  are  connected  by 
that,  that  not,  and  lest. 


I 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  IS"* 

(a.)  Lest  denotes  a  negative  purpose^  or  the  avoidance  of  an 
evil,  and  is  nearly  equivalent  to  that  not ;  as,  "  Take  heed  lest  ye 
fy\\:=thai  ye  do  7iotfaU." 

325.  The  potential  mode,  or  subjunctive,  poten- 
tial form,  is  always  employed  in  final  clauses,  and 
the  imperative  or  potential  is  commonly  used  in 
the  principal  clause. 

326.  An  adjective  clause,  introduced  by  a  prepo- 
sition, and  having  its  verb  in  the  potential  mode, 
generally  denotes  a  purpose ;  as,  "  We  have  no 
other  means  hij  which  we  may  aid  him.^^ 

(a.)  Final  clauses  are  often  equivalent  to  an  infinitive;  as, 
"  Eat  that  you  may  live  "  :=  "  Eat  to  live." 

(b.)  Final  clauses  generally  relate  to  some  correlative  phrase 
in  the  principal  clause,  such  as,  "  in  order,"  "  with  the  design." 


Exercise    52. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  parse  the  con- 
nectives :  — 

I  I  have  brought  a  passage,  that  you  may  explain  it.  He 
visited  the  springs,  that  he  might  ii^aprove  his  health.  /  I 
have  been  the  more  careful,  that  I  might  not  be  the  instru- 
ment of  his  ruin.  He  sent  me  a  history  of  Rome,  that  I 
might  examine  it.  I  opened  the  door,  that  I  might  see 
who  was  there.  He  went  to  the  city,  that  he  might  consult 
an  attorney. 

Write  clauses  denoting  a  purpose  or   motive    to 
the  following :  — 

We  should  take  exercise.  Avoid  trees  in  a  thunder- 
storm. Study.  Improve  your  time.  Shun  bad  company. 
Take  heed.     Reprove  not  a  scorner.     Answer  not  a  fool 

14 


158  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 

according  to  his  folly.     Oblige  your  friends.     He  opened 
the  window.     He  fled  his  country. 

Change  the  above  clauses  denoting  "purpose  to 
infinitives.'  (326,  a.) 

Write  sentences  in  which  the  following  infinitives 
shall  denote  jpurjpost,  and  then  change  them  to 
clauses :  — 

To  see  his  brother  to  hear  the  news ;  to  enjoy  the  sea- 
breeze  ;  to  write  a  letter ;  to  educate  his  children ;  to  take 
lessons  in  music ;  to  catch  a  robber ;  to  sell  his  furniture  ; 
to  obtain  a  situation  in  the  bank. 

Write  five  complex  sentences,  each  containing  an 
adjective  clause  denoting  purpose.     (326.) 

Adversative  Chouses. 

327.  Adversative  clauses  are  used  when  we 
concede  something  which  stands  as  a  cause  or  rea- 
son opposed  to  the  statement  in  the  principal 
clause.  They  are  introduced  by  though,  although, 
notwithstanding,  however;  as,  ''Though  he  slay 
me,  yet  will  1  trifst  in  him." 

(a.)  The  correlatives  of  adversative  clauses  a.re,  yet,  still,  oi 
nevertheless,  placed  in  the  principal  clause. 

(6.)  JFJiateverj  whoever,  tchichcvcr,  and  while,  often  have  an 
adversative  signification ;  as,  "  Whatever  you  may  say,  he  per- 
sists in  doing  it." 

328,  An  adversative  clause  may  be  expressed 
by  a  comparison  of  equality ;  as,  "  Poor  as  he  was, 
he   contributed    more    than    any   other    man  "  ~ 

'  Though  he  was  poor,  he  contributed  more  than 
any  other  man." 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES.  159 

\^s  I  Adversative  clauses  are  often  equivalent  to  phrases  con- 
liecU  i  by  2inth,  icithout,  notwithstanding^  despite  of;  as,  "  With 
all  hi  <  faults^  he  is  a  useful  man  "  =  "  Though  he  has  many  faults, 
he  is  a  useful  man." 

Exercise  53. 
Analyze  the  fgllowing  senterices  :  — 

Though  he  was  rich,  ydt  for  our  sakes  he  became  poor. 
Although  the  place  was.  unfavorable,  nevertheless  Csesar 
determined  to  'attack  the  enemy.  However  careless  he 
might  seem,  his  fortune  depended  upon  the  decision.  Fee- 
ble as  he  was,  he  devoted  the  whole  day  to  study.  Vigilant 
as  were  the  watchmen,  the  robbers  made  frequent  depreda- 
tions. Whoever  may  oppose,  we  shall  insist  upon  the 
adoption  of  the  plan.  He  would  pull  a  mote  out  of  his 
neighbor's  eye,  while  he  has  a  beam  in  his  own. 

Write  sentences  in  which  the  following  adjectives^ 
with  as,  shall  introduce  an  adversative  clause.  Intro- 
duce each  by  though. 

Bold,  deficient,  strong,  poor,  thoughtless,  silent,  bright, 
warm,  faithful,  honest,  abrupt,  wild,  sad,  joyous,  contented. 

Model.     Cold  as  it  was,  we  were  compelled  to  be  out 
through  the  nioht  =:  Though  it  was  cold,  &c. 

Expand  the  following  Italicized  phrases  into  adver- 
sative clauses.     (See  32S,  a.) 

With  all  his  faults.,  I  love  him.  He  applied  for  a  sit- 
uation, without  a  recommendation,  Notivithstanding  the 
storm,  we  commenced  our  journey.  Despite  of  oppo- 
siiion,  he  made  his  way  to  distinction. 

Model.      Though  he  has  many  jaults,  I  love  him. 

Write  a  sentence  having  an  adversative  clause  Jo? 
each  of  the  connectives,  though,  although,  notwith- 
standing, however,  while,  whatever,  whoever. 


)60  ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES. 


A\  — ADVERBIAL    CLAUSES  DENOTIISG  MANNER. 

329.  By  adverbial  clauses  denoting  manner,  the, 
predicate  of  the  principal  clause  may  be  compared 
with  that  of  the  subordinate,  so  as  to  show,  1st,  a 
correspondence ;  2dj  a  consequence ;  or,  3d,  equality 
or  inequality  in  magnitude. 

330.  Correspondence  is  indicated  by  as,  just  as, 
§0  .  .  .  as,  when  it  relates  to  a  verb  or  adjective,  and 
by  such  . .  .  as,  and  same  .  . .  as,  when  it  relates  to 
a  noun  ;  as,  "  Speak  as  you  think;  "  "  These  are 
such  books  as  I  have." 

(ft.)  By  an  ellipsis  of  an  entire  proposition,  two  subordinate 
connectives  come  together,  the  former  of  which  denotes  corre- 
spondence  ;  as,  "  Always  act  in  private  as  if  you  were  seen  by 
others  "  ="  Always  act  in  private  as  you  would  do  if  you  were 
seen  by  others." 

331.  Clauses  denoting  consequence,  or  effect,  are 
introduced  by  so  . .  .  that,  when  the  consequence 
relates  to  a  verb  or  adjective,  and  by  such  . . .  that^ 
when  it  relates  to  a  noun ;  as,  ''  The  traveller  was 
so  weary  that  he  fell  asleep." 

(a.)  When  the  consequence  relates  to  a  verb,  so  that  should 
follow  it  J  when  it  relates  to  an  adjective,  so  precedes,  and  thai 
follows  it;  when  it  relates  to  a  noun,  suck  or  such  a  precedes,  and 
that  follows  it. 

332.  Comparison  of  equality  (232)  is  indicated 
by  «s  ...  05  ;  as,  "  George  is  as  tall  as  his  brother  "• 
{is  tall.)  So  is  used  instead  of  the  first  as  aftei 
not,  in  clauses  denying  equality  ;  as,  "  George  is 
not   50  tall  as  his  brother." 

{ a.)    Proportionate  equality,  or  equality  between  two  predicaJt* 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  1 61 

which  vary  in  intensity,  is  indicated  by  the  . . .  fhcj  the  .     so  much 
the,  with  comparatives ;  as,  "  The  colder  it  is,  Uie  better  I  feel." 

333.  Comparison  of  inequality  is  denoted  by 
than,  more  . . .  than,  less  . . .  than ;  as,  "  George  is 
taller  than  his  brother  ^^  (is  tail,) 

(a.)    Clauses  denoting  comparison  are  generally  elliptical. 

Exercise  54. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  tell  which  c?e- 
note  correspondence,  which  consequence,  arid 
which  equality  or  inequality". 

As  a  bird  that  wandereth  from  her  nest,  so  is  a  man  that 
wanclereth  from  his  place.  As  the  door  turneth  upon  its 
hinges,  so  doth  the  slothful  man  upon  his  bed.  Will  you 
read  so  that  you  can  be  heard }  The  robber  struck  him 
such  a  blow  that  he  fell.  Happiness  is  much  more  equally 
distributed  than  some  suppose.  Is  gravity  always  as  wise 
as  it  appears .?  The  science  of  mathematics  performs  more 
than  it  promises.  Experience  is  a  surer  guide  than  ima- 
gination. Is  it  not  better  to  be  laughed  at  than  ruined } 
iMoses  built  the  tabernacle,  as  he  was  commanded.  Do  as 
your  parents  bid  you.  Can  you  paint  the  picture  as  she 
does  >  Our  lesson  is  the  same  as  that  we  had  yesterday. 
The  more  eminent  men  are,  (332,  a.)  so  much  the  more 
condescending  they  should  be  to  the  humble.  The  more 
prudent  one  is,  the  more  cautious  he  is.  Many  men  live 
as  though  (330,  a.)  they  were  born  to  pleasures. 

Write  clauses  denoting  conges jmidence,  to  complete 
the  following :  — 

As  a  man  thinketh Will  ypu  be  so  good      .... 

The  pupil  wrote  the  copy  just  as The  boy  sings  aa 

The  task  is  the  same  as Speak  as 

Make  the  mark  just  as 

14* 


162  ANAi^YSIS     OF    SENTENCES. 

fVnte    clauses    denoting   consequence    or    effect    to 
comjjlcte  the  foUoiving  :  — 

The  day  was  so  stormy The  sun  is  so  bright 

The  patient  had  gained   so  much  strength 

The  hours  seemed  so  long They  gave  him  so  Uttle 

money We  should  acquire  knowledge,  so  that 

It  is  so  cold We  have  had  so  much  rain 

fVrite  clauses  denoting  comparison  of  equality  ap- 
plied to   the  following  adjectives:  — 

Wise,  great,  stupid,  long,  broad,   fierce,  cool,  strong, 
weak,  thin,  bright,  dark,  faithful. 

Model.     Was  Lycurgus  as  wise  as  Solon  ? 

Write    clauses  denoting  comparison    of  inequality 
applied  to  the  same. 

Model.     Solon  v/as  wiser  than  Lycurgus  =:  Lycurgus 
was  not  so  wise  as  Solon. 

334.    It  has  now  been  shown  that  either  of  the 
five  elements  of  a  sentence  may  be  a  single  word, 
a  phrase,  or  a  clause.     They  may  be  thus  repre 
sented  :  — 

.^rfj.-f-SuB.  ::  Prkv.-}- Obj.-\-Mv. 

Class  1         1  1  1  M  cj-      1 

_,        _         ^  ^  r.  -.  2  bimple  sentences. 

Class  2         2  2  2         2)* 

Class  3         3  3  3         3     Complex  sentences 


^SECTION    VI. 

COMPLEX   ELEMENTS    CONTAINING    CLAUSES. 

335.    With  simple  elements  of  the  first  class,  the 
only  complex  element  that  can  be  formed  consists 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  63 

of  tVv^o  or  more  single  words  united,  (143;)  as, 
"very  quickly."  But  with  the  addition  of  the 
phrase,  three  or  "our  varieties  can  be  formed.  (240.) 
By  uniting  the  three  different  classes  of  elements, 
[nngle  words,  jjhrases^  clauses,)  at  least  nine  varieties 
may  be  formed,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  following 

EXAMPLES. 

Complex  elements  may  be  formed,  — 

/  By  joining  1  &  1 ;  as,  ver7j  quickly. 

1  By  joining  1  «&  2 ;    "  desirous  of  fame. 

^  By  joining  1  &  3;    "  a  pleasure  which  I  cannoi 
'  express, 

t  By  joining  2  &  1  ;    "  with  great  satisfaction 

Class     II.    \  By  joining  2  «&  2;    "  is  fear  of  detection. 

\  By  joining  2  &  3;    "  from  him  to  whom  it  is  due. 

f  By  joining  3  4fc  1 ;   "     if  he  comes  quickly.* 
Class  III.    /  By  joining  3  &  2 ;   "    when  we  yvE^T  to  Albany 
\  By  joining  3  &  3;   "     as  I  came  ichcre  he  sat. 

Note.     For  an  explanation  of  the  table,  see  11  240,  Note. 

EXEKCISE    55. 

Review  the  models  for  analysis  of  complex  elements^ 
in  Chop.  11. ,  and  analyze  the  following  examples:  — 

The  light,  the  celestial  vault,  the  verdure  of  the  earth, 
the    transparency    of  the  waters,  gave    animation    to  my 

*  It  is  generally  most  convenient,  except  when  minute  analysis 
is  required,  to  consider  the  subordinate  clause,  even  though  limit- 
ed, as  a  simple  element ;  as,  "  Since  you  haye,  by  your  oicn  choice^ 
refused  the  proposal."  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  phrase,  wher 
only  a  limiting  word  comes  between  the  preposition  and  it?  ob 
ject ;  as,  "  in  this  plic.-s ;  "  "  through  three  volumes. 


164  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCE.?. 

spirits,  and  conveyed  pleasures  which  exceed  the  powers  of 
expression.  Totally  occupied  with  this  new  species  of  ex- 
istence, I  had  already  forgot  the  light,  though  the  first  par 
of  my  being  which  I  had  recognized.  If  the  blessings  of 
our  political  and  social  condition  have  not  now  been  too 
highly  estimated,  we  cannot  well  overrate  the  responsibilities 
which  they  impose  upon  us.  We  hold  these  institutions  of 
government,  religion,  and  learning,  to  be  transmitted  (210) 
as  well  as  enjoyed.  I  deem  it  my  duty,  on  this  occasion, 
to  suggest,  that  the  land  is  not  yet  wholly  free  from  the 
contamination  of  a  traffic  at  which  every  feeling  of  hu- 
manity must  revolt. 


SECTION   VII. 

COMPOUND  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  THIRD  CLASS. 

336.  Although  the  clauses  we  have  been  con- 
sidering are  subordinate  to  some  part  of  the  princi- 
pal clause,  yet  two  or  more  of  them  may  become 
coordinate  with  each  other,  and  thus  form  a  com- 
pound element  of  the  third  class  ;  as,  ''I  thought 
that  the  substance  of  the  fruit  had  become  part  of  my 
own,  AND  that  I  was  endowed  with  the  power  oftrans^ 
forming  bodies. ^^ 

337.  Either  of  the  principal  or  of  the  stibordi 
nate  elements,  when  of  the  third  class,  may,  like 
the   single    word    or    phrase,    become    compound 
(151.) 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES.  165 


Exercise  56. 


Review  the  model  on  page  15,  and  then  analyze 
the  following  sentences  :  — 

I  soon  perceived  that  I  had  the  power  of  losing  and  of 

fecovering  them,  and  that  I  could,  at  pleasure,  destroy  and 

renew  this   beautiful   part   of  my  existence.     That    iheir 

poetry  is  almost  unitbrmly  mournful,  and  that  their  views 

of  nature  were  dark  and  dreary,  will  be  allowed  by  all  who 

admit  the  authenticity  of  Ossian. 

When  riseth  Lacedemon's  hardihood, 
When  Thebes  Epaminondas   rears  again, 
When  Alliens'  children  are  with  arts  endued, 
When  Grecian  mothers  shall  give  birth  to  men,  — 
Then  thou  mayst  be  restored. 

I  neither  knew  what  I  was,  where  I  was,  nor  from  whence 
I  came.  Why  we  are  thus  detained,  or  why  we  receive 
no  intelligence  from  home,  is  mysterious. 

AmoniTst  that  number  was  an  old  man,  who  had  fallen 
an  early  victim  to  adversity,  and  whose  days  of  imprison- 
ment, reckoned  by  the  notches  which  he  had  cut  on  the 
door  of  his  gloomy  cell,  expressed  the  annual  circuit  of 
more  than  fifty  suns.  Bruyere  declares,  that  we  are  come 
inio  the  world  too  late  to  produce  any  thing  new  ;  that 
nature  and  life  are  preoccupied  ;  and  that  description  and 
sentiment  have  been  long  since  exhausted.  We  may 
rather  suppose,  that  Nature  is  unlimited  in  her  operations ; 
that  she  has  inexhaustible  treasures  in  reserve  ;  that  knowl- 
edge will  always  be  progressive  ;  that  there  are  innumer- 
able regions  of  imagination  yet  unexplored ;  and  that  all 
future  generations  will  continue  to  make  discoveries,  of 
which  we  liave  not  the  least  idea. 

Write   ten  sentences,  each  containing  a  comj^omid 
dement  of  the  third  das 


160  ANALYSIS    OF     SEiNTENCES. 

SECTION    VIII. 

SEVERAL    ELEMENTS    OF    THE    SAME    NAMK 

33S.  A  complex  sentence  may  be  greatly  ex- 
tended by  introducing  two  or  more  modifying 
wofdsj  phrases,  or  clauses  of  the  same  name  not 
connected  with  each  other.     (165.) 

(a.)  Adverbial  clauses,  from  their  variety,  afford  the  greatest 
opportunity  for  using  different  elements  of  the  same  name.  We 
may  limit  the  predicate  with  an  adverbial  element  denoting  pZace, 
with  another  denoting  time^  &c.  And  each  of  these  may  be 
complex  or  compound. 

Exercise  57. 

Analyze  the  folloiving  complex  sentences^  and  poitit 
out  the  luords,  phrases^  or  clauses,  of  the  same  name 
ivhich  are  not  connected  with  each  other,  yet  belong  to 
the  subject  or  predicate  :  — 

As  I  darkened  the  .light,  he  cast  his  eye  toward  the  win- 
dow, that  he  might  catch  the  feeble  rays  of  the  moon 
When  we  oassed  the  corners  of  the  streets,  we  were  al- 
ways saluteQ  oy  some  beggars  who  were  congregated  there. 
If  there  be,  within  the  extent  of  our  knowledge  or  influ. 
ence,  any  participation  in  the  traffic,  let  us  pledge  ourselves 
here,  upon  the  Rock  of  Plymouth,  to  extirpate  and  de- 
stroy it. 

Take  any  twelve  of  the  unlimited  propositions  in 
the  first  five  exercises,  Chap.  I.  Sec.  11. ,  and  expand 
them  as  much  as  possible,  by  additions  to  the  subject 
and  predicate. 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES.  167 

339.  The  three  classes  of  clauseSj  substantive, 
adjective^  and  adverbial,  have  now  been  explahied. 
They  may  be  thus  represented,  as  they  enter  into 
the  structure  of  a  sentence :  — 

Adj.  Ele.       -f       Sub.       i  Puei>.     +    Obj.  Ele.  +  Adv.  Ele 

c  1 '      ,  i     Subs,  clause.     Subs,  clause.     Subs,  clause.    Adv.  clause, 

bubs,  clause.  ) 


SECTION    IX. 


ABRIDGED   PROPOSITIONS. 


340.  A  complex  sentence  differs  from  a  simple 
sentence  only  in  the  expanded  state  of  some  one 
or  more  of  its  elements.    (270,  271,  272.)     Hence, 

341.  A  complex  sentence  may  be  reduced  to  a 
simple  one  by  abridging  its  subordinate  clause ;  as, 
"  A  man  ivho  is  deceitful,  can  never  be  trusted  "  =^ 
"A  deceitful  man  can  never  be  trusted." 

(a.)  The  abridged  form  partakes  of  the  nature  of  the  clause 
from  which  it  is  derived,  that  is,  it  is  either  substantive^  adjective, 
or  adverbial. 

(6.)  In  abridging  a  proposition,  the  change  is  produced  chiefly 
upon  its  essential  parts,  (264,)  its  subordinate  elements  being 
joined  to  the  abridged  form  without  alteration. 

342.  The  general  rule  for  abridging  a  subordi- 
nate clause,  is,  to  remove  the  connective,  and  change 
the  predicate  to  a  participle  or  an  infinitive  ;  as, 
"  If  Tien  shame  is  lost,  all  virtue  is  lost ''  =  "  Shame 


IG8  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 

being  lost,  all  virtue  is  lost ;  "   "  We  told  him  that 
he  must  leave^^  =  "  We  told  him  to  leave.'''' 

(«.)  The  connective  is  retained  in  certain  substantive  clauses, 
when  the  predicate  is  in  the  potential  mode,  and  the  subject  is 
the  same  as  that  of  the  principal  verb.  In  such  cases,  the  predi- 
cate is  changed  to  the  infinitive  and  the  subject,  dropped  by 
TI  343,  (a.);  as,  "I  knew  not  icliat  '  should  do  =  what  to  do.' 
In  like  manner,  we  have,  ^'•whom  to  send;"  '■'■  lohere  to  go ; 
"  wlien  to  stop,;  "  "  hoio  to  do  it^"  &c. 

(b.)  A  similar  change  may  take  place  in  such  adjective  clauses 
as  are  mentioned  in  II  326;  as,  "  Give  me  a  knife  icith  lohich  1 
may  cut  this  string  =  with  which  to  cut  this  string  =  to  cut  this 
string  with.'' 

Note.  By  changing  the  predicate  to  a  participle  or  an  infin* 
itive,  the  assertion  is  destroyed ;  the  attribute,  either  with  or 
without  the  participle  of  the  copula,  (185,  Note,)  becomes  an 
assumed  property  (16,  a.)  or  is  used  substantively. 

343.  The  following  are  the  rules  for  the  subject 
m  an  abridged  pro^^osition  :  — 

(a.)  When  the  subject  of  the  subordinate  clause 
is  the  same  as  the  subject  or  object  of  the  principal 
clause,  it  is  omitted;  as,  ''I  wish  that  I  might  go 
:=  to  go.'' 

(b.)  When  it  is  different  from  the  subject  or 
object  of  the  principal  clause,  it  must  be  retained, 
and  may  appear  either  in  the  nominative,  posses- 
sive, or  objective  case. 

(c.)  When  it  is  in  the  nominative  case,  it  is  put 
absolute  with  the  participle.  ^^  fVheii  shame  is  lost 
=  shame  being  lost^  all  virtue  is  lost." 

(d.)  When  it  is  in  the  possessive  case,  it  be- 
comes wholly  subordinate  to  the  abridged  predicate 
used  as  a  noun  ;  as,  *'  I  was  not  aware  that  he  zvas 
^oing  =  of  his  going."  (185.  c.) 


ANALYSIS  OP  SENTENCES  169 

(e.)  When  it  is  in  the  objective  case,  it  is  fol- 
)o\ved  by  the  infinitive  of  the  abriaged  predicate  ; 
as,  "  I  told  him  that  he  must  go  ==  him  to  go.^^ 
(See  194  and  210.) 

344.  The  following  are  the  rules  for  the  pred- 
icate :  — 

(a.)    The  abridged  predicate  may  have  two  con- 
structions,  —  that  of  an   adjective,  or  that  of  a  sub 
stantive  ;  as,  "  The   man  ivho  perseveres  "  :=  "  The 
yersevering   man ;  "  "  I   am  not   sure  that   he  will 
he  present  =  of  his  being  present^ 

[h.)  When  the  attribute  of  the  predicate  is  an 
adjective  or  a  noun,  the  participle  or  infinitive  of 
the  copula  must  be  joined  to  it  to  give  it  a 
verbal  form  ;  as,  ''  to  be  industrious  ;  "  ''  being 
merchants." 

(c.)  When  the  attribute  of  the  predicate  is  a 
noun,  it  must  be  in  the  objective  case  after  the 
participle  or  infinitive  of  the  copula,  when  the 
subject  is  changed  to  the  objective  (343,  e.) ;  as,  ^'  I 
believed  that  it  was  he  ^=^it  to  be  Aim." 

(fi.)  It  remains  unchanged  in  the  nominative, 
after  the  participle  of  the  copula,  when  the  subject 
is  in  the  nominative,  (343,  c.) ;  as,  "  As  a  youth  was 
their  leader,  what  could  they  do?"=:"A  youth 
being  their  leader,''^  &c. 

(e.)  It  remains  unchanged  in  tlie  nominative, 
when,  with  the  participle  of  the  copula,  it  becomes 
a  verbal  noun,  limited  by  the  possessive  case  of  the 
«3ubjeGt;  as,  '-That  he   was  a  foreigner  prevented 

15 


170  ANALYSIS     OF     SENTENCES 

his  election  "  —  ''  His  being  b.  foreigner  *  prevented 
his  Bxection." 

345.  AH  abridged  constructions  may  be  reduced 
to  four  classes,  —  the  participial  construction,  the  nom- 
inative absolute,  the  infinitive,  and  the  participial  noun 
In  the  first  two,  the  attribute  is  used  as  an  adjec 
five;  in  the  last   two,  as  a    substantive.     (344,  a.) 

346.  In  the  participial  construction,  the  subject 
IS  omitted,  (343,  a.)  and  the  attribute  of  the  predi- 
cate is  joined  as  an  adjective  to  some  noun  or  pro- 
noun in  the  principal  clause.     Hence, 

"  That  "  foreigner,"  or  any  other  word  similarly  used,  is  in  the 
S)ominative  case,  will  appear  from  the  ibllo  wing  considerations:  — 

(1.)  !t  was  in  the  nominative  case  before  the  clause  was 
abridged      (60.) 

(2.)  It  cannot  be  in  the  possessive  case,  after  the  change, 
though  it  relates  to  the  same  person  as  "  his;  "  for  it  neither  has 
the  sign  of  possession,  nor  does  it  denote  possession.  Besides,  by 
a  universal  law  of  language,  a  dependent  or  limiting  word,  like 
"  his,"  has  no  control  over  the  construction  of  the  words  on  which 
it  depends     (185,  c.) 

(3.)  It  cannot  be  in  the  objective  case  ;  for  it  does  not  depend 
upon  any  word  (such  as  a  preposition  or  verb)  which  requiies  it 
to  be  in  that  case ;  nor  has  any  thing  taken  place  in  the  process  of 
abridgment,  as  in  IT  344,  (c),  to  cause  any  change  in  its  case. 
Hence,  as  it  was  in  the  nominative  case  before  the  change,  it  must 
etill  remain  in  that  case,  un. ess  its  position  in  the  sentence  should 
require  a  change. 

(4.)  But  no  position  which  it  may  take  in  being  incorporated 
as  a  part  of  the  principal  clause,  can  cause  a  change  of  case.  A 
subordinate  clause  may  take  any  position  in  the  sentence,  (268 ;) 
hence  its  abridged  form  may  take  the  same,  ( 341,  a.)  Subordinate 
clauses  have  a  twofold  construction ;  one  as  a  whole,  and  one  as 
w>mposed  of  parts  ;  (261,  a.)',  so  have  their  abridged  forms. 
Thus,  in  the  following  examples,  the  abridged  forms,  as  a  whole. 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  171 

347.  The  participial  construction  is  most  com- 
monly employed  in  reducing  adjective  clauses  ;  as, 
"  The  culprit  who  was  convicted  of  stealing,  =  con' 
victed  of  stealing,  was  sent  to  the  penitentiary." 

348.  Adjective  clauses  are  often  reduced  by 
changing  the  predicate  into  a  noun  joined  to  the 
Innited  noun  by  "of;"  as,  '-  A  man  who  is  gener^ 
ous  will  gain  friends  "  =  '*  A  man  of  generosity  will 
g-iin  friends." 

349.  The  abridged  predicate,  whether  in  the 
form  of  the  participle  or  infinitive,  may  receive  the 
same    additions   as    it    would    receive    in    the  un- 


perforra  precis^^Iy  the  same  offices  as  the  complete  forms.    "  That 
he  was  a  foreigner^  (2S1)=  his  being  a  foreigner^  prevented  hia 
election."     "  ^  knew  that  he  w/is  a  foreigner  "  Qi'Jb)  =  "  I  knew 
his  being,  or  of  his  being-  a  foreigner.''     <'  The   fact  thai  he  was  a 
foreigner^   (294)  =of   his  being  a.  foreigner^  was  undeniable." 
*■'  JVJien  he   was  first   called   a  foreigner^   (305)=  ore   his   being 
first  called  a  foreigner^  his  angei  was  excited."     In   all  these 
abridged  forms,  neither  "  foreigner"  nor  any  other  one  word,  but 
the  whole  combination,  takes  the  place  of  its  corresponding  clause. 
In  the  first  example,  the  combination,  especially  "  being  a  for- 
eigner," is  in  the  nominative  case  ;  but  that  fact  does  not  require 
the  single  word  "  foreigner  "  to  be  in  that  case.     In  the  other  ex- 
amples, the  same  form  is  in  the  objective  case  ;   but  the  word  '*  for- 
eigner "  is  not  hence  in  the  objective  any  more  in  the  abridged 
than  in  the  complete  form.    Therefore,  though  the  whole  combina- 
tion may  be  either  in  the  nominative  or  objective  case,  each  word, 
taken  separately,  may  have  its  own  construction,  (see  187,  a.) ; 
and  since  "  foreigner"  was  in  the  nominative  (pred.  nom.)  origin 
illy,  and  nothing  has  taken  place  to  change  its  case,  it  must  still 
reinain  as  the   predicate-nominative  of  an  abridged  propopition 
Hence,  in  abridging  the  following  proposition,  "  1  was  not  aware 
Shat  it  teas  tie,  '  we  should  say,  "  of  its  being  he,"  not  "  his     nor 
'■hhn:' 


172  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 

changed  form ;  as,  "  When  he   came  into  the  city 
:=!  coming  into  the  city  ;''^  to  come  into  the  city. 

(a.)  The  participle  may  be  used  wholly  as  an  adjective,  and 
be  placed  before  the  noun ;  as,  "  The  man  who  labors''  =  "  The 
laboring  man ;  "  or  it  may  retain  some  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
clause  from  which  it  is  derived,  and  be  placed  after  the  noun  ;  as, 
*  Those  wlw  live  upon  the  sea-shore  "  =  "  Those  living  upon  th\: 
sea'shorr.^' 

350.  The  participial  construction  may  be  em- 
ployed to  abridge  adverbial  clauses,  whea  it  can  be 
used  to  limit  a  noun,  and  at  the  same  time  denote 
some  circumstance  of  the  principal  verb ;  as,  "  Be- 
cause  he  was  unable  to  persuade  the  multitude,  he  left 
in  disgust "  =r  "  Being  unable^  or  Unable  to  per- 
suade,^^  &c. ;   "He   fell,  clinging    t     the  branches^ 

351.  The  nominative  absolute  is  employed  when 
the  subject  is  not  omitted,  (344,  b,)  and  the  attri- 
bute  is  used  as  an  adjective  agreeing  with  it ;  as, 
"  Jesus  conveyed  himself  away,  a  multitude  being  wi 
t ha f  place.' ^ 

352.  This  construction  is  employed  chiefly  in 
abridging  adverbial  clauses  denoting  time  or  cause. 

Exercise  58. 

Abridge  the  subordinate  clauses  in  the  following 
sentences,  by  employing  the  participial  construction,  or 
the  nominative  absolute,  and  explain  the  changes :  — 

When  Elizabeth  was  queen,  Bacon  was  lord  chancellor. 
A  Qccessitous  man,  who  gives  costly  dinners,  pays  large 
■iLims  to  be  laughed  at.  Dr.  Franklin,  ivho  loas  the  projec- 
tor of  many  useful  institutions,  was  bred  a  printer.  Honors 
'chick  are  bestowed  upon  the  illustrious  dead.,  have  in  them 


ANALYSIS  OF   sp::ntences.  173 

no  r.diriixture  v.f  envy.  As  we  were  passing  through  the 
straits,  we  were  detained  by  a  dense  fog.  Because  some 
truths  arc  difficult  of  compi^ehension,  the  weak  reject  them. 

Expand  the  following  abridged  forms  into  clauses^ 
and  explain  the  changes :  — 

Privileged  individuals,  surrounded  hy  parasites,  syco- 
phants, and  deceivers,  too  often  become  the  willing  victims 
of  self-delusion.  Undelighted  amidst  all  delight,  and  joy- 
less amidst  all  enjoyment,  they  eventually  receive  the  full 
measure  of  the  punishment  of  their  folly,  their  profligacy, 
or  their  vice.  Analogy  being  a  powerful  weapon,  we 
should  be  extremely  cautious  in  using  it. 

353.  The  infinitive  is  employed  chiefly  to 
abridge  substantive  clauses  introduced  by  ''that;-' 
as,  ''  That  one  should  steals  is  base  "  nr:  "  For  one  to 
steal,  (194,)  is  base." 

354.  The  infinitive  is  employed  to  abridge  ad- 
verbial clauses  denoting  a  purpose,  (226 j)  as,  "He 
went  that  he  might  see  =  to  see." 

(ffi.)  When  the  subject  of  the  final  clause  (324)  is  retained, 
(344,  b.)  it  is  put  in  the  objective  case  afler  "for;"  as,  "I  havf? 
brought  a  book  for  you  to  read."  "  For  "  governs  not  "you  " 
alone,  but  "you  to  read,"  in  the  same  manner  as  some  transitive 
verbs  govern  a  double  object.     (120,  210.) 

(b.)    Formerly,  "  for  "  was  employed  to  govern  the  infinitive  oi' 
purpose,  virhen  used  vsrithout  its  subject;  as,  "  What  went  ye  ou 
for  to  see?" 

'S55.  Substantive  clauses  of  an  interrogative  na- 
ture, (274,)  are  generally  abridged  by  employing 
some  noun  which  shall  express  the  general  idea  of 
the  clause  ;  as,  "  I  know  not  where  he  is  concealed  '' 
=  "  I  know  not  the  place  of  his  concealment." 

356.  The  participial  noun  is  employed  te 
15* 


174  ANAI  YSIS     OF     SENTENCES. 

abridge  both  substantive  and  adverbial  clauses.  In 
the  latter  case,  it  generally  follows  a  preposition  ; 
as,  '^  When  we  arrived  at  the  pier,  all  was  commo- 
tion "  =r  <«  On  our  arriving  at  the  pier,  all  was  com- 
motion." 

Exercise   59. 

Analyze  and  explain  the  folloiving  sentences  ac- 
cirding  to  the  previous  principles  :  — 

The  atrocious  crime  of  being  a  young  man,  1  shall  nei- 
ther attempt  to  palliate  ?r  deny.  He  had  been  there  but  a 
short  time,  before  the  old  man  alighted  from  his  gig,  with 
the  apparent  intention  of  becoming  his  guesi.  Such  persons 
commence  by  being  their  own  masters,  and  finish  by  being 
their  own  slaves.  I  have  brought  a  book  for  you  to  read. 
Trusting  in  God,  implies  a  belief  in  him. 

Expand  the  above  abridged  clauses  to  complete 
clauses. 

*     Reduce    the  following  miscellaneous   complex  sen- 
tences by  abridging  the  subordinate  clauses  :  — 

The  belief  that  there  is  a  plurality  of  gods,  is  inconsistent 
with  reason.  Nothing  more  completely  baflles  one  who  is 
full  of  trick  and  duplicity  himself,  than  straightforward, 
simple  integrity  in  another.  Johnson  declared  that  wit 
consists  in  finding  out  resemblances. 

Combine  the  following  simple  sentences^  so  as  to 
ma]{e  one  complex  sentence  out  of  the  first  and  second, 
another  out  of  the  third  and  fourth,  and  so  on ;  then 
abridge  the  subordinate  clause  :  — 

We  left.  The  sun  set.  A  sudden  noise  a'armed  us. 
We  were  sitting  under  a  tree.  He  will  retire  from  busi- 
ness.    He   has  accumulated  a  fortune.     He  means  well. 


ANALi^SlS    OF     SENTENCES.  175 

He  makes  many  oiunders.     The  peaches  fall  to  the  ground. 

harles  shakes  die  tree.     He  will  spend  four  years  in  the 

country.      He  will  attend  to  agricultural  pursuits. 

■  Model.     We  left  when  the  sun  set  zn  at  sunset. 

Note.  Before  closing  this  section,  a  word  or  two  is  necessary 
respecting  the  influence  of  tense  upon  the  abridged  form.  Tense, 
in  subordinate  clauses,  is  not  reckoned  from  the  time  of  the 
speaker,  (as  in  principal  clauses,)  but  from  tht  time  of  the  action 
or  event  mentioned  in  the  principal  clause.  (78,  b.)  Hence,  when 
the  verb  of  the  principal  clause  is  in  the  past  tense,  that  of  the 
subordinate  clause  must  also  be  in  the  past  tense,  if  it  denotes  a 
time  present  with  that  of  the  event;  but  it  must  be  in  the  past 
perfect  tense,  if  it  denotes  a  time  past  in  reference  to  a  past  event. 
Thus,  in  the  sentence  ''I  believed  that  he  was  honest,"  "was," 
though  in  the  past  tense,  denotes  a  time  present  with  "be- 
lieved." Hence,  in  abridging  this  clause,  the  present  of  the  infin- 
itive should  be  employed  ;  as,  "  I  believed  him  to  he  honest."  But 
in  the  sentence  "I  believed  that  he  had  been  honest,"  "had 
been"  denotes  not  only  time  past,  but  time  completed,  (81,  h.j 
in  reference  to  "believed."  Hence,  in  abridging  this  clause,  the 
past  perfect  of  the  infinitive  should  be  used  ;  as,  "  I  believed  him 
to  have  been  honest."  The  same  principles  apply  to  the  partici- 
ples ;  as,  "  When  we  saio  the  shower  approaching,  we  sought  the 
nearest  shelter  "  =  "  Seeing  the  shower  approaching,  we  sought." 
&c.  "  When  the  shower  had  passed.,  we  resumed  our  journey  "  = 
"The  shower  having  passed,  we  resumed  our  journey."  In  adver- 
bial clauses  denotintr  time,  the  connective  indicates  the  relative 
time  of  the  subordinate  clause,  (312,  313 ;)  the  preposition  performs 
a  similar   office  in  phrases  denoting   time.     (2'21,  c.  and  79,  c.) 

Note  to  Teachers.  It  will  often  be  found  convenient,  in 
analyzing  sentences,  to  vary  the  models.  When  it  is  desirable 
to  impress  upon  the  mind  of  the  pupil  the  for /as  of  the  elements, 
he  should  follow  the  models  strictly.  At  other  times,  it  will  be 
sufficient  to  say  of  an  element,  that  it  is  the  subject,  predicate,  or 
that  it  limits  one  of  these,  without  giving  its  particular  class 
Sometimes  it  is  well  to  parse  a  phrase  or  clause  as  if  it  was  a 
single  word.  Thus,  "when  you  call,"  in  "  I  will  go  when  you 
call,  '  is  an  adverb,  or  is  of  the  nature  of  an  adverb,  and  limits 
'*will  go,"  by  Rule  IX. 


176  ANALYSIS    OF    SFBJTENCES. 

CHAPTER   IV. 

(COJIPCUND    SENTENCES.) 

COORDINATE   CLAUSES. 

r     357.    A  compound  sentence  is  formed  by  uniting 
'    two  or  more  principal  clauses,  (see  263):  as,  "A 
wise  son  maketh  a  glad  father ;  but  a  foolish  son  is 
the  heaviness  of  his  mother." 

358.  The  clauses  which  are  thus  united,  are  co- 
ordinate with  each  other.     (149.) 

'--3  X  (a.)  A  compound  sentence  is  formed  by  uniting  two  similar 
simple  sentences,  just  as  a  compound  element  (149)  is  formed  by 
uniting  two  similar  simple  elements. 

(6.)  A  compound  sentence  differs  from  a  complex,  precisely  as 
a  compound  element  diflers  from  a  complex.  In  a  complex  sen- 
tence, one  clause  enters  in  as  a  constituent  element  of  the 
other,  either  as  its  subject,  attribute,  object,  modifier,  &c. ;  but  in 
a  compound  sentence,  one  clause  is  in  noway  a  part  of  the  other. 
It  is  composed  of  two  distinct  and  independent  parts.  A  com- 
pound sentence  may  be  distinguished  from  a  complex,  by  the 
connectives  used.  No  connective  can  join  coordinate  clauses 
which  may  not  also  join  coordinate  parts  of  a  clause. 

(c.)  All  coordinate  conjunctions  are  used  primarily  to  connect 
clauses ;  but  when  the  clauses  have  some  part  in  common,  that 
part  is  generally  inserted  but  once,  and  the  conjunction  is  used  to 
connect  only  the  other  parts  ;  as,  "  Some  men  sin  frequently,  and 
some  men  sin  presumptuously  "  =  "  Some  men  sin  frequently  and 
presumptuously."  (Turn  to  Exercise  28,  page  78,  and  extend 
each  sentence  by  repeating  the  part  in  common.) 

359.  Coordinate  clauses  may  be  divided  into 
three  classes,  according  to  the  connective  used, 
(157,)  copulative,  adversative,  and  alternative. 

360.  The  coordinate  parts  o(  a  compound  sen 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES.  177 

jence  may  be  either  simple  or  complex  sentences  ; 
IS,  ''  Give  me  a  book,  and  I  will  give  you  a  slate." 
'  The  miser  has  lived  poor,  that  he  may  die  rich  ] 
and  if  the  prodigal  quits  life  in  debt  to  others,  ihe 
tiiser  quits  it  still  deeper  in  debt  to  himself." 


SECTION    I. 

COPULATIVE    COORDINATE    CLAUSES. 

361.  When  one  clause  is  so  united  to  another  as 
to  express  an  additional  thought,  and  thereby  give 
a  greater  extent  to  its  meaning,  it  is  called  copula- 
tive ;  as,  "  Fingal  bade  his  sails  to  rise,  and  the 
winds  came  rustling  from  their  hills." 

362.  When  the  copulative  clause  denotes  addi- 
tion without  emphasis  or  modification,  the  simple 
conjunction  and  is  used. 

363.  If  we  wish  to  awaken  an  expectation  of 
some  additional  thought,  and  thereby  introduce  it 
with  emphasis,  the  conjunction  has  a  correlative 
placed  in  the  first  clause  ;  as,  "  Not  only  did  the 
wind  blow  most  fiercely,  but  the  rain  fell  in  tor- 
rents." 

(ff.)  The  coordinate  conjunctions,  with  their  correlatives,  are, 
both  . . .  and  ;  as  tcell . .  .as  ;  not  only  .  . .  hut^  hut  also,  but  likeicise. 
These  correlatives  are  most  commonly  used  to  connect  coordinate 
parts  of  the  same  clause ;  as,  "  He  was  both  virtuous  and  wise=; 
Mot  only  virtuous,  but  wise.-' 

364.  It  is  often  necessary  to  associate  with 
*^  and '-  some  other  word,  which  shall  give  a  shade 


\ 


178  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 

of  meaning  to  the  added  clause,  not  expressed  by 
^^-^hc  principal  conjunction  ;  as,  "  Susan  is  learning 
music,  and,  besides,  she  attends  to  drawing." 

(«.)  These  associate  or  auxiliary  connectives  are  50,  also^  like- 
wise^ too,  wliich  denote  resemblance^  and  give  additional  force  to 
the  meaning  of  the  second  clause ;  besides,  vioreover,  and  now^ 
which  are  often  used  in  argument,  to  enforce  an  additional  objec- 
tion ;  hence,  therefore,  consequently,  icherefore,  then,  which  repre- 
sent the  coordinate  clause  as  an  inference  from  the  preceding ; 
even,  which  gives  peculiar  force  by  expressing  something  unusual 
or  beyond  expectation. 

365.  When  the  principal  conjunction  is  under- 
stood, the  auxiliary  remains  as  the  only  connective, 
giving  its  peculiar  force  to  the  coordinate  clause ; 
as,  "  The  storm  has  abated  ;  therefore  let  us  resume 
our  journey;  "  "  Demosthenes  was  a  distinguished 
orcitor,  [and]  Cicero  was  also  an  eminent,  orator." 

(a.)  These  connectives  partake  of  the  nature  of  adverbs,  and, 
unlike  the  principal  conjunction,  may  be  placed  within  the 
second  clause.  It  is  to  this  class  of  connectives  that  all  deductive 
particles  are  to  be  referred.     (315,  Note.) 

Model  for  analyzing  Compound  Sentences. 

CcEsar  has  refused    kis  consent,  and  there  remains  no 
,  hope  of  my  speedy  restoration. 

It  is  a  coinpouiid  sentence,  because  it  contains  two 
similar  clauses,  (both  principal.) 
CiBsar  has  refused  his  consent,  is  the  first  clause. 
There  remain?  no  hope,  &lq,.,  is  the  second  clause. 

It   is  a  copuhitive  clause,  coordi- 
nate with  the  first,  and  is  connected 
with  it  by  "  and,"  which  joins  the 
two  clauses  as  el^f^ment*  of  a  com 
pound  sentence 


ANAIYSIS    OF     SENTENCES.  179 

Analyze  each  of  the  coordinate  parts  according  to  the  previous 
aaodels. 

Note.  All  compound  sentences  should  be  analyzed  in  a  simi 
lar  mannei  These  sentences  are  far  less  ditficult  than  complex. 
The  force  of  coordinate  conjunctions  is  much  sooner  appreciated 
by  children  than  that  of  subordinate.  Hence  children,  and  nations 
in  the  simplest  states  of  society,  employ  these  connectives  first. 
The  parts  of  a  compound  sentence  often  succeed  each  other 
without  a  connective,  being  separated  by  a  colon  or  semicolon.    < 


Exercise  60. 

Analyze  the  folloiving  sentences,  and  tell  ivhether 
the  second  clause  expresses  addition  simply,  addition 
with  emphasis,  (363,)  or  addition  modijied  by  some 
associated  particle,  (364. ) 

1  was  eyes  to  the  blind,  and  feet  was  I  to  the  lame. 
This  part  of  knowledge  has  been  growing,  and  it  will  con- 
tinue to  grow  till  the  subject  be  exhausted.  I  conceived  a 
great  regard  for  him,  and  I  could  not  but  mourn  for  the 
loss  he  had  sustained.  The  more  sleek  the  prey,  the 
greater  the  temptation ;  and  no  wolf  wil'  leave  a  sheep,  to 
dine  upon  a  porcupine.  Not  only  am  I  instructed  by  this 
exercise,  but  I  am  also  invigorated.  Religion,  as  well  as  its 
votaries,  must  have  a  body  as  well  as  a  soul.  (363,  a,)  A 
hero  on  the  day  of  battle  has  sacrificed  a  meal,  and  shall 
we  therefore  pity  him  ?  (364.)  Wisdom  was  their  object, 
and  they  attained  even  more  than  that  object.  The  poor 
lady  is  suffei*ing  from  a  fever ;  her  children  are  likewise 
ill.  The  situation  is  not  suited  to  his  tastes  ;  the  compen- 
sation, moreover,  is  meagre.  Green  is  the  most  refreshmg 
color  to  the  eye ;  hence  Providence  has  made  it  the  com 
men  dress  of  nature. 


180  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 

SECTION  II. 

ADVERSATIVE  COORDINATE  CLAUSES. 

366.  Aq  adversative  coordinate  clause  is  one 
which  stands  opposed  to,  or  contrasted  with,  the 
preceding  clause  ;  yet  both  are  so  united  as  to  form 

^one  compound  sentence. 

^  367.  The  simple  adversative  conjunction  is  but  ; 
as,  "  We  esteem  most  things  according  to  their  in- 
trinsic merit ;  hut  it  is  strange  that  man  should  be 
an  exception." 

368.  When  we  wish  to  represent  the  first  clause 
as  a  concession  J  we  place  near  the  beginning  of  it 
the  correlative  indeed,  which  points  forward  to  but 
as  the  connective  of  something  opposed  to  the  ad- 
mission ;  as,  "I  did,  indeed,  grant  his  request ;  but 
I  took  him  to  be  a  gentleman." 

(a.)  The  following  correlatives  are  sometimes  used  to  connect 
adversative  clauses  :  —  on  the  one  hand  .  ...  on  the  other  ;  at  one 
time  .  ...  at  another  ;  noio  ....  then. 

369.  With  hut  are  often  associated  other  words 
in  the  same  clause,  which  become  the  sole  connec- 
tive when  the  principal  connective  is  understood. 

(a.)  These  are  yct^  still,  hoioever,  nevertheless,  noio,  and  many 
ot  those  mentioned  in  IT  364,  (a.) 

Exercise  61. 

Analyze  the  foUomng  sentences,  jpomting  out  the 
same  distinctions  as  in  the  preceding  exercise :  — 
What  he  says  is  indeed  true,  but  it  is  not  applicable  to  the 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES.  181 

p--ont.  I  strBnuously  opposed  those  measures,  but  it  was 
not  ip  my  power  to  prevent  them.  We  submit  to  the  so- 
ciety of  those  that  can  inform  us,  but  we  seek  the  socivHy 
of  those  whom  we  can  inform.  Vice  stings  us  even  in  our 
pleasures,  but  virtue  consoles  us  even  in  our  pains.  Tiger 
hunting  is  very  fine  amusement  so  long  as  we  hunt  the 
tiger ;  but  it  is  rather  awkward,  when  the  tiger  takes  it 
into  his  head  to  hunt  us.  They  have,  indeed,  honored 
them  with  their  praise,  but  they  have  disgraced  them  with 
their  pity.  Some  men  know  but  little  of  their  profession, 
but  yet  they  often  succeed  in  life  better  than  those  whose 
attainments  they  can  never  reach.  Straws  swim  upon  the 
surface ;  but  pearls  lie  upon  the  bottom.  A  clownish  air  is 
but  a  small  defect ;  still  (369)  it  is  enough  to  make  a  man 
disagreeable.  The  locusts  have  no  king,  yet  go  they  forth 
all  of  them  by  bands. 


SECTION    III. 

ALTERNATIVE    COORDINATE    CLAUSES. 

370.  Alternative  clauses  are  such  as  offei  or 
deny  a  choice  between  two  propositions  ;  as,  ''  We 
must  conquer,  or  our  liberties  are  lost." 

371.  The  simple  conjunctions  used  to  connect 
such  clauses,  are,  or^  nor,  (=not  of,)  neither,  (—not 
either. ) 

372.  The  alternative  is  made  emphatic  by  placing 
the  correlatives  either  or  neither  in  the  first  clause  ; 
as,  "I  shall  neither  go  myself  nor  shall  I  send  any 
one." 

16 


182  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 

(a.)  JVeitJier  .  .  .  nor,  either  .  .  .  or,  more  commonly  show  an 
alternative  between  two  elements  of  the  same  clause ;  as,  "  He 
was  neither  w'se  nor  careful;"  '■'- Either  George  or  his  brother 
wiL  come." 

373.  The  connectives  otherwise  and  else  are 
often  associated  with  or^  and  may  represent  it 
when  understood ;  as,  ''  Learn  your  lesson ;  other- 
wise you  must  lose  your  rank." 

Exercise    62. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences  as  in  the  two  pre- 
ceding exercises :  — 

A  jest  is  not  an  argument ;  nor  is  a  loud  laugh  a  dem- 
onstration. I  neither  learned  wisdom,  nor  have  I  a  knowh 
edge  of  the  holy.  He  either  left  the  key  in  the  door" 
[or]  else  the  robber  had  a  false  key.  Christianity  must 
be  the  true  religion,  (373;)  otherwise  all  the  religions  in 
the  world  are  but  fables. 

For  them  no  more  the  blazing  hearth  shall  burn. 
Or  busy  housewife  ply  her  evening  care ; 

No  children  run  to  lisp  their  sire's  return, 
Or  climb  his  knees  the  envied  kiss  to  share. 

Can  honor's  voice  provoke  the  silent  dust, 
Or  flattery  soothe  the  dull,  cold  ear  of  death  ? 

I  have  none  ;  else  would  I  give  it.  He  is  either  sick  or 
fatigued,  (372,  a.)  I  neither  knew  what  I  was,  where  I 
was,  nor  from  whence  I  came.  -^    sa      ^  -^ 

Add  either  copulative,  adversative,  or  alternative 
clauses  to  each  of  the  following  simple   sentences. 

We  must  conquer.  The  debt  must  be  paid.  The 
child  will  be  relieved  soon.  He  has  returned.  The  lec- 
ture has  either  been  very  long.  He  has  not  the  strength 
to  accomplish  the  work.     We  must  retreat. 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  I S8 

SECTION   IV 

RECAPITULATION. 

374.  We  have  now  exhibited  all  the  forms  of 
words,  phrases,  and  clauses,  which  enter  into  the 
structnre  of  the  English  language.  The  following 
recapitulation^vill  give  a  condensed  view  of  their 
principal  uses :  — 

375.  In  reviewing  the  preceding  chapters,  the 
learner  will  observe  that  any  sentence  is  composed 
of  essential  parts  and  connectives.' 

376.  The  essential  parts  are  of  the  nature  of  a 
substantive,  adjective,*  or  adverb.  (176,  189,  269.) 
These  parts  may  enter  into  the  structure  of  a  sen- 
tence, either  in  the  form  of  a  single  word,  a  phrase, 
or  a  clause. 

377.  The  substantive  (word,  phrase,  or  clause) 
may  enter  into  the  structure  of  a  sentence  in  three 
relations,  —  as  subject,  as  attribute,  (either  assumed 
ox  predicated,)  or  as  object. 

378.  The  adjective  (word,  phrase,  or  clause)  may 
enter  into  the  structure  of  a  sentence,  first,  as  a. 
modifier,  and,,  secondly,  (with  the  exception  of  the 
clause,)  as  the  attribute  of  a  proposition. 

379.  The  adverb  (word,  phrase,  or  clause)  is 
used  as  a  modifier. 


*  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  that  adjective^  as  here  used,  in- 
CiUdes  the  attributive  part  of  the  verb.     (24,  35,  a.) 


184  A-NALYSiS     OF     SENTENCEb. 

380.  The  adjective  element,  in  either  class,  is  used 
tu  limit  meieiy  ;  —  to  limit  by  denoting  quality^ 
%o  limit  by  denoting  identity ^  or  to  limit  by  de- 
noting possession. 

381.  The  objective  element,  in  either  class,  is  used 
to  complete  the  meaning  of  a  transitive  verb. 

382.  The  adverbial  element,  in  either  class,  de- 
notes the  jjlace,  time,  cause,  or  manner  of  an 
action. 

383.  Each  element  is  subject  to  three  condi- 
tions ;  it  may  be  simple,  complex,  or  comqjomid. 

(a.)  When  the  subordinate  elements  are  simple,  the  adjective 
belongs  to  the  subject,  (except  when  the  predicate-nominative  is 
ttsed ;)  the  ohjcctive  belongs  to  the  predicate,  (used  only  with  tran- 
sitive verbs  ;)  the  adverbial  belongs  to  the  predicate.  When  any 
..N_\  one  of  these  elements  is  complex,  it  may  be  formed  by  a  union 
of  either  or  all  the  others,  so  that  an  adverbial  or  objective  ele- 
ment may  be  found  in  the  subject,  or  an  adjective  in  the  predicate. 

384.  The  following  table  exhibits  the  different 
forms  of  the  elements  in  the  sz?/2p/e,  the  omplex,  or 
the  compowid  sentence  :  — 


Simple. 


Adj.  -f  Sub.  i  i  Pred.  +  Obj.  -\-  Adv. 

Class  11111 
Class  2        2         2  2         2 

Class  3        3  3  3         3     Complex. 

Adj.  +  S. :  P.  +  Obj.  +  Adv.  Adj.  +  S  :  P.  +  Obj.  4-  4du. 

1  11  1  1  ^  ^1         11         1  1  ) 

2  22       2         2S+V2      22       2         2V  Comp 

3  3  3       3         3)        I3      3   3       3         3^ 


*  The  different  coordinate  conjunctions  bear  some  resemblance 
10  the  three  algebraic  signs,  -[-,  — ,  rh;  the  first  representing  tho 
topulative,  the  second,  the  adversative  •  the  thiid,  the  alternative. 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES,  185 

385.  Th(ise  elements  are  united  by  connectives. 

386.  The  subject  and  predicate  are  united  by 
the  copula,  either  distinct  or  involved  in  the  verb, 

387.  The  other  elements  are  united  either  suh' 
ordinately  or  co'ordinately. 

388.  Subordinate  elements  are  united  immedi- 
ately ^  if  of  the  first  class,  —  by  means  of  preposi- 
tions, if  of  the  second,  —  by  means  of  relative  pro- 
nouns, conjunctions,  or  conjunctive  adverbs,  if  of  the 
third 

389.  Coordmate  elements  of  either  class  are 
connected  by  conjunctions. 

390.  Conjunctions,  or  conjunctive  words,  are 
divided  into  two  classes,  —  coordinate  and  subordin- 
ate. The  former  are  used  in  compound  or  partial 
compound  sentences,  and  the    latter   in   complex. 

391.  The    coordinate    conjunctions    are    often  <^ 
placed  at  the  beginning   of  an  entire   sentence,  or 
even  a  paragraph.    They  then  connect  the  thought 
contained  in  the  sentence  or  paragraph  which  fol- 
lows, to  that  which  precedes. 

(a.)  Sometimes  subordinate  connectives,  especially  for 
and  because,  are  placed  at  the  beginning  of  an  entire  sen- 
tence. In  such  cases,  some  principal  clause  is  understood ;  as, 
[It   is   so,]   "  For  I  delight  in  the  law  of  God  after  the   innei 


man." 


(b.)  It  is  worthy  of  notice,  that  coordinate  conjunctions  are 
employed  to  connect  elements  of  the  same  class  as  well  as  the 
same  rank  ;  whereas  subordinate  connectives  join  elements  differ- 
ing both  in  rank  and  class  ;  as,  "  I  know  that  the  exje  of  the  public 
is  upon  me,  and  that  I  shall  be  held  responsible  for  every  act ;' 
**I  will  sustain  the  statement  ichich  T  have  made. 

16* 


186  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES, 

CHAPTER    V. 
VARIOUS    PROPERTIES    OF    SENTENCES. 


SECTION    I. 
SENTENCES    CONSIDERED    AS    A    WHOLE. 

^■^2.  In  the  preceding  chapters,  we  have  ex- 
-.  dned  the  different  species  of  words,  phrases,  and 
cUuses,  which  enter  into  the  formation  of  a  sen- 
tence. We  are  now  to  regard  the  sentence  as  a 
complete  structure,  entering  in  as  a  component 
part  of  a  paragraph. 

393.  Sentences  thus  considered  are  divided  into 
four  clisses, — declarative,  interrogative,  iiuperative, 
and  exdamatory. 

394.  A  declarative  sentence  is  a  declaration  or 
statement,  either  affirmative  or  negative,  and  is  the 
appropriate  form  for  narrative  and  didactic  compo- 
sition. 

395.  An  interrogative  sentence  is  a  question, 
either  direct  or  indirect,  and  is  the  appropriate  form 
to  to  employed  in  seeking  for  information  or  gain- 
ing the  assent  of  others. 

(tt.)   In  questions  for  gaining  assent,  not  should  be  inserted  if 
we  expect  an  affirmative  answer,  and  omitted  if  we  expect  a  neg- 
Rtive  ;  as, "  Is  there  not  an  appomted  time  to  man  on  the  earth  '' 
[Yes.]     "  Doth  God  pervert  judgment?  "     [No.]     Hencej 

{b.)     li'  not  is   found  in  the  question,  it    should   be    emitted 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  181 

in  llie  answer,  and  should  be  inserted  in  the  answer  when  It  it 
not  found  in  the  question ;  as,  "  There  is  an  appointed  time  to 
man  on  the  earth  ;  "     "  God  doth  not  pervert  judgment." 

396.  An  imperative  sentence  is  used  to  express 
a  command,  an  entreaty,  an  exhortation,  or  a 
prayer  ;  as,  "  Let  us  go  : ''  "  May  the  truth  prevail.'* 

(a.)  Of  this  kind  of  sentence  there  are  two  forms,  —  one  in 
which  the  verb  is  in  the  imperative  mode,  and  one  in  wliich  it  is 
in  the  potential.     (See  the  above  examples.) 

(h.)  An  imperative  sentence,  when  uttered  by  one  who  lias 
authority,  is  a  command ;  when  uttered  by  one  v/ithout  authority, 
is  nothing  more  than  an  exliortation  or  entreaty ;  when  uttei-ed 
by  an  inferior,  is  a  prayer. 

397.  An  exclamatory  sentence  is  either  a  declar- 
ative, interrogative,  or  imperative  sentence,  so  ut- 
tered as  to  express  passion  or  emotion  ;  as,  "  The  foe 
is  gone  !  "   "  Was  it  not  strange  !  "   ''  Make  haste  ' '' 

[a.)  Exclamatory  sentences  are  often  so  elliptical  as  to  be- 
come mere  fragments  of  a  sentence  ;    as,   Strange !    Impossible ! 

( b.)  Exclamatory  expressions  are  often  of  the  nature  of  the 
interjection;  as ^  Mercy .'    Goodness!    How  strange! 

398.  Each  kind  of  sentence  may  be  simple,  com- 
plex,  or  compound.  The  compound  may  be  either 
partial  or  complete.  (See  note  at  the  bottom  of 
page  75.) 

399.  The  parts  of  a  compound  sentence  may  be 
all  of  the  same  species,  that  is,  all  declarative,  all 
interrogative,  &c.  ;  or  they  may  be  of  different  spe- 
cies ;  as,  "  Give  me  the  means,  and  I  will  cause 
rlie  work  to  be  completed  ;  "  ''  He  came,  but  where 
is  he  now  ?  " 

( a.)  Such  sentences  are  called  mixed;  they  may  be  formed  by 
an  J  ting  any  two  of  the  four  species  of  sentences 


K 


188  analysis  of   sentences. 

Models  for  analyzing  a  Paragraph. 

Note.  After  the  general  character  of  a  sentence  has  been 
given,  it  may  be  analyzed  according  to  the  preceding  models. 

But  for  ivhat  else  can  you  find  no  leisure  ?  Do  you  find 
none  for  amusement  ?  Or  is  amusement  itself  your  occu^ 
patio7i7  Perhaps  pleasure  is  the  pressing  business  of 
your  life;  perhaps  pleasure  stands  loaiting  to  catch  your 
precious  moments  as  they  pass.  Do  you  find  none  for  the 
pursuit  of  secular  knoicledge  1  If  you  find  none^  then^ 
for  religion^  it  is  perhaps  because  you  wish  to  find  none; 
it  would  be,  you  think,  a  tasteless  occupation,  an  insipid 
entertainment. 

The  first  sentence  is  a  simple,  indirect  interrogative 
sentence.  The  second  is  a  simple,  direct  mterrogative 
sentence.  The  third  the  same.  The  fourth  is  a  com- 
pound declarative  sentence  ;  the  first  part  is  simple,  the 
second  complex,  (360.)  The  fifth  is  a  simple,  direct  inter- 
rogative sentence.  The  sixth  is  a  compound  declarative 
sentence   having  two  parts,  both  complex. 

Exercise    63. 

Analyze  the  folloiving  paragraphs  :  — 

Again,  it  is  said,  Am  I  not  as  good  as  others  }  Why  is 
an  attention  to  religion,  an  unpopular  piety,  a  rigid  virtue, 
required  of  me,  which  cannot  be  found  in  the  circle  of  my 
acquaintance,  or  in  the  world  at  large  }  Why  am  I  urged 
to  set  up  as  a  reformer,  or  expose  myself  to  the  scorn  of 
mankind  ?  But  the  majority  of  men  are  poor.  Does  this, 
however,  check  the  ardor  of  your  pursuit  of  wealth  }  or  do 
you  avoid  a  new  acquisition,  because  you  fear  it  will  "ex- 
pose you  to  the  envy  of  your  inferiors }     The  majority  of 


A.XALYSIS     OF     SENTENCES.  189 

mankind  are  ignorant.     But  is  ignorance  therefore  honor- 
able, or  IS  learning  contemptible  or  invidious  ? 

The  first  emotions  Avhich  touched  my  breast  were  those 
of  mingled  pity  and  veneration.  But  how  soon  were  all 
my  feelings  changed  !  The  lips  of  Plato  were  never  more 
worthy  of  a  prognostic  swarm  of  bees,  than  were  the  lips 
of  this  holy  man.  It  was  a  day  of  the  administration  of 
the  sacrament ;  and  his  subject,  of  course,  was  the  passion 
of  our  Savior.  T  had  heard  the  subject  handled  a  thousand 
times :  I  had  thought  it  exhausted  long  ago.  Little  did  I 
suppose,  that,  in  the  wild  woods  of  America,  I  was  to  meet 
with  a  man  whose  eloquence  would  give  to  this  topic  a  new 
and  more  sublime  pathos  than  I  had  ever  before  witnessed. 


SECTION    II. 

ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  ELEMENTS. 

400.  The  arrangement  of  an  element  is  the  po- 
sition which  it  takes  in  the  sentence. 

401.  There  are  two  kinds  of  arrangement ;  — 
that  which  is  usual,  called  the  natural  or  grammati- 
cal   order ;    and    that  in   which   the   elements  are 
transposed,  called  the  inverted  or  rhetorical  order. 


I.  —  ARRANGEMENT    OF    THE    PRINCIPAL    ELE 

MENTS. 

'  402.    In    declarative    sentences,    the    subjecr    is 
placed  before  the  predicate,  the  copula  before  the 


190  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 

attribute,  and  the  auxiliary  before  the  principal 
verb:  as,  "Caesar  conquered j "  "Life  is  short." 
"James  will  write." 

403.  Inversion  takes  place  when  the  predicate 
is  made  emphatic ;  as,  "  Great  is  Diana  of  the 
Ephesians ; "  "Known  unto  God  are  all  his 
w^rks." 

(a.)  In  such  cases,  the  subject  is  generally  placed  between  the 
attribute  and  copula,  or  the  auxiliary  and  principal  verb. 

( 6.)  Inversion  takes  place  in  sentences  introduced  by  there^ 
(35,  b.  196,  a.)  or  in  sentences  following  nor  or  neither. 

404.  In  direct  interrogative  sentences,  the  copula 
or  auxiliary  is  placed  first,  the  subject  next,  and  the 
attribute  or  principal  verb  last ;  as,  "  Is  he  well  ?  '* 
"  Can  you  go  ?  " 

(fl.)  When  the  predicate  is  a  simple  form  of  the  verb,  it  is 
placed  before  the  subject;  as,  "  Say  you  this  without  a  blush?" 

405.  In  indirect  interrogative  sentences,  the  in- 
terrogative is  placed  first,  and  the  other  parts  are 
generally  arranged  as  in  direct  interrogative  sen* 
tences ;  as,  "When  did  he  come?" 

(a.)  When  the  interrogative  pronoun  is  in  the  nominative 
caee,  it  stands  before  the  predicate  ;  as,  "  Who  comes  tliere  ?  " 

(i.)  When  the  attribute  is  the  subject  of  inquiry,  it  should  be 
placed  before  the  copula,  and  the  subject  should  be  placed  last  ', 
as,  "  How  high  is  the  tree?  "     "  How  old  was  the  messenger  ?  " 

406.  In  imperative  sentences,  the  subject  fol- 
lows the  predicate,  or  is  placed  between  the  copula 
and  attribute  ;  as,  "Go  thou;  "  "'Be  ye  content." 

407.  Exclamatory  sentences  follov/  the  arrange- 
ment  of  the  sentences  from  which  they  are  de- 
rived     (397.) 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES  191 

408.    In   subordinate   clauses,  the   connective   is 
placed  first,  and  thon  the  subject  and  predicate. 


\l.  — ARRANGEMENT  OF   THE  ADJECTIVE  ELEMENT 

409.  The  adjective  element,  if  simple  and  of 
the  first  clasSj  is  placed  before  the  noun  ;  if  of  the 
second  or  third  class,  it  is  placed  after  the  noun  ; 
as,  "  Wise  men  =  men  of  wisdom  =  men  who  were 
ivise  were  chosen." 

(«.)  The  noun  in  apposition  is  placed  after  the  noun  which  it 
fimits;  as,  "  George  the  king."* 

(6.)  A  complex  adjective  element  is  placed  after  the  noun 
when  it  contains  an  element  of  the  second  or  third  class ;  as, 
"  Men  skilled  in  architecture.'' 

(c.)  When  an  adjective  element  is  of  the  first  class,  and  com- 
pound, it  may  be  placed  before  or  after  the  noun ;  as,  "  Pure  and 
ardent  devotion,"  or  "  Devotion  pure  and  ardent." 

(rf.)  When  an  adjective  limits  the  complex  idea  expressed  by 
another  adjective  and  noun,  it  must  be  placed  before  them  both  j 
as,  "  Jill  good  men  ;  "  "  That  distinguished  officer." 


m.  —  ARRANGEMENT  OF   THE   OBJECTIVE  AND 
ADVERBIAL  ELEMENTS. 

410.  The  objective  element  of  either  class  is 
placed  after  a  transitive  ve^b,  and  generally  precedes 
the  adverbial  element ;  as,  "  Susan  painted  the 
picture  elegantly ; "  ''  I  know  that  my  Redeemer 
liveth:' 

411.  The  indirect  object  precedes  the  diiect, 
tvhen  the  preposition   is  omitted  ;  of.lierwise  it  fol- 


y 


192  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCF.S. 

ows  it ;  as,   "  Vv^e  gave  Am  money ;  "  "  ^'e  ^ave 
money  to  himy 

412.  Inversion  of  the  objective  element  takes 
place  frequently  in  poetry,  but  seldom  in  prose  ;  as. 
'^Copernicus  these  wonders  told." 

(a  )  As  the  relation  of  words  in  English  is  determined  chiefly 
Dy  their  position,  inversion  of  the  object  often  renders  the  mean- 
ing of  a  sentence  ambiguous  ;  as  "  Caesar  Brutus  loved."  Either 
"Ccesar"  or  "  Brutus  "  may  be  the  object  of  "loved,"  When 
the  pronoun  is  used,  inversion  may  take  place  without  obscur- 
ing the  sense;  as,  " /f/??t  followed  his  next   mate." 

X  413.  The  adverbial  element  of  either  class  is 
placed  after  the  word  which  it  limits ;  as,  "  The 
'etter  was  written  correctly;^''  "He  remained  in 
Philadelphia;^^  "We  shall  leave  as  soon  as  the 
storm  abates.''^ 

(«.)  As  a  general  rule,  an  adverbial  element  of  the  first  class  is 
placed  before  one  of  the  second,  and  one  of  the  second  before  one 
of  the  third;  as,  "  He  went  early  m  the  morning ;  "  "  Some  per- 
sons beg  their  daily  happiness  from  door  to  door,  as  beggars 
do  their  daily  bread.'' 

414.  Inversions  take  place  more  frequently  in 
the  adverbial  element  than  in  any  other. 

415.  The  simple  adverb  is  often  placed  between 
the  copula  and  attribute,  or  between  the  auxiliary 
and  verb  ;  as,  "  I  shall  immediately  send  for  him ; " 
"  He  is  now  convalescent." 

(a.)  Modal  adverbs,  and  such  as  modify  the  whole  sentence, 
are  often  placed  at  the  beginning ;  as,  "  Perhaps  he  will  do  it." 

416.  Adverbial  elements  of  either  class  may  be 
placed  in  either  of  three  positions,  —  1st,  in  their 
natural  position  after  the  predicate  ;  2d,  between  the 
subject  and  predicate ;  or,  3d,  at  the  head  of  the 
sentence. 


ANALYSIS     OF     SPINTENOK^ri  193 


EXAMPLES 


{He  examined  the  document  carefully. 
He  carefully  examined  the  document. 
Carefully  did  he  examine  the  document. 

/■  He  invaded  the  country  with  a  large  arnih, 
M  Class.  <  He,  with  a  large  army^  invaded  the  country. 
V  With  a  large  army,  he  invaded  the  country. 

{Flowers  vv'ill  bloom,  whe7i  spring  comes. 
Flowers,  when  spring  comes,  will  bloom. 
When  sjnnng  comes,  flowers  will  bloom. 

417.  In  compound  sentences,  the  clauses  are  sue- 
cessiv^e.  One  can  never  be  interposed  between  the 
parts  ot^  another. 

Note.  The  perspicuity,  harmony,  strength,  and  beauty  of  a 
sentence  often  depend  upon  a  skilful  arrangement  of  its  elements. 
No  definite  rules  for  arrangement  can  be  given  to  guide  the 
learner  in  all  cases  ;  he  must  rely  mainly  upon  his  own  judg. 
ment,  aided  by  the  suggestions  of  his  teacher.  He  will  find  it  an 
excellent  exercise,  to  take  some  well-written  paragraph,  and  re- 
arrange all  its  sentences,  then  compare  the  new  arrangement  with 
the  old,  and  decide  upon  their  merits. 

Exercise  64. 

Show  which  elements  in  the  following  senterices  are 
arranged  grammatically,  and  ivhich  are  inverted  :  — 

Powerful  was  the  king  of  Alba  ;  numerous  were  his 
armies  ;  mighty  his  people.  Two  hemispheres  acknowl- 
edged his  sway.  The  sun  rose  in  glory  on  his  eastern 
cities,  and  set  in  splendor  o'er  his  western  people.  As  '.he 
trunk  of  a  luxuriant  tree  borne  down  by  its  branches,  so 
was  the  kingdom  of  Alba  in  the  midst  of  its  dependencies. 
X  The  precursors  of  a  storm  were  seen  in  the  west  ^  a  majcs- 

17 


194  ANALVSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 

tic  figure  emerged  from  the  gloom  ;  the  wreath  of  freedoi*! 
decorated  her  brov/ ;  her  breastplate  was  the  shield  of 
faith.  Superstition  trembled  at  her  coming.  Tyranny 
fled  before  her  footsteps.  At  her  voice  the  wilderness 
blossomed,  and  the  desert  became  as  the  peopled  city. 

Point  out  the  inversions  in  the  following  sentences, 
and  show  what  element  is  transposed :  — 

Great  is  the  theme,  though  weak  the  lay.  Because  the 
night  was  dark,  they  did  not  proceed.  With  regard  to  mo- 
rality, i  was  not  indifferent.  On  the  following  day,  they 
walked  together  in  the  garden. 

Seven  circling  planets  1  behold, 
Their  different  orbits  all  describe. 

Whom,  therefore,  ye  ignorantly  worship,  him  declare  I 
unto  you.     Anxiously  did  we  watch  eveiy  movement. 

Take  some  inverted  passage  of  poetry  and  arrange 
it  grammatically. 

Arrange  the  following  displaced  elements  so  thai 
they  will  make  sense ;  — 

He  himself  as  well  as  he  could  concealed,  and  hasten 
on  Thomas  bade.  We  our  cause,  by  calling  in  that  which 
is  weak  mjure  often,  to  support  that  is  strong  which.  The 
world  we  in  others  approving  follow,  but  in  ourselves  ap' 
proving  before  it  go.  Of  our  population,  the  march  west 
ward,  with  consequences,  in  some  degree  has  been  attended, 
novel,  in  the  human  mind  history  of.  Greatness  his  un- 
searchable is,  and  past  finduig  out  ways  his.  Of  the  new 
year  what  the  charm  is  ? 

Improve  the  arrangement  of  the  following  sentences  :  — 

V    Impart  to  them,  in  addition  to  their  hereditary  valor,  thai 
confidence  of  success  which  springs  from  thy  presence,  s. 
The  long  voyage  he  has  to  make,  to  an  American  visiting 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES.  195 

iii^x .  ft,  is  an  excellent  preparative.  He  will  make  order, 
at  last,  to  arise  from  the  seeming  confusion  of  the  world, 
wlio  made  light  to  spring  from  primeval  darkness.  If  he 
was  not  the  greatest  king,  he  was  the  greatest  actor  of 
majesty  at  least,  that  ever  filled  the  throne.  He  ha.s  noi 
only  disturbed  our  domestic,  but  our  social  relations. 


SECTION    III. 
PECULIARITIES   OF   STRUCTURE. 

418.  Peculiarities  of  structure  may  refer  to  en- 
tire sentences  or  to  their  component  parts. 

l.-^ PECULIARITIES    IN    THE    STRUCTURE    OF    SEN- 

TENCES. 

419.  A  sentence  may  be  either  loose  or  co7npact 

(a.)  These  are  qualities  belonging  to  complex  or  compound 
■jentences. 

(b.)  Compact  structure  is  often  called  periodic^  and  a  com- 
pact sentence,  a  period. 

420.  A  loose  sentence  is  one  in  which  the  parts 
are  related  in  thought,  but  are  wholly  independent 
of  each  other  in  construction ;  as,  ''  Three  days 
they  mourned  over  Garthon  :  on  the  fourth,  his 
father  died." 

(rt.)   The  loose  sentence  is  to  be  found  chiefly  among   com 
pound  sentences. 

(h.)  The  parts  of  a  loose  sentence  are  called  its  members.  They 
may  be  either  simple^  complex^  or  compound, 

(c.)    Each  member  contains  a  distinct  thought,  and  is  uttered 


196  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 

as  if  it  were  a  complete  sentence ;  the  voice  falls  at  the  end  ol 
each  member. 

421.  A  compact  sentence  is  one  in  which  the 
parts  are  closely  united  both  in  thought  and  con- 
struciion  ;  as,  "Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I 
trust  in  him." 

(a.)  This  property  belongs  both  to  compound  and  complex 
sentences.     The  latter  are  seldom  loose. 

(  6.)  In  uttering  compact  sentences,  the  voice  is  kept  up  till  the 
<lose. 

(c.)  Compact  sentences  are  most  closely  united  by  means  of 
correlatives. 

Exercise  65. 

Tell  which  of  the  following  sentences  are  compact, 
and  ivhich  are  loose. 

These  minor  comforts  are  all  important  in  the  estimation 
of  narrow  minds  ;  and  they  either  do  not  perceive,  or  wilj 
not  acknowledge,  thai  they  are  more  than  counterbalanced 
among;  us  by  great  and  generally  diffused  blessings.  Let 
those  who  would  affect  singularity  with  success,  first  deter- 
mine to  be  very  virtuous,  and  they  will  be  sure  to  be  very 
singular.  A  revengeful  knave  will  do  more  than  he  wil! 
say  ;  a  grateful  one,  will  say  more  than  he  will  do.  We 
are  sure  to  be  losers  when  we  quarrel  witli  ourselves ;  it  u 
a  civil  war,  and  in  all  such  contentions,  triumphs  are  de- 
feats. When  a  man  has  displayed  talent  in  some  particu- 
lar patii,  and  left  all  competitors  behind  him  in  it,  the 
world  are  too  apt  to  give  him  credit  for  a  universality  ol 
genius,  and  to  anticipate  for  him  success  in  all  that  he  \!n 
fJeriakes. 

M'^riie  ten  sentences,  — five  compact  and  five  loo  <e. 


/ 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  197 


U.^FECUL1ARITIES    IN    THE    USE    OF    THE    ^ARTS 

OF  A   SENTENCE. 

422.  Any  departure  from  the  ordinary  rules  of 
construction  is  called  ?i  figure.  The  following  are 
the  principEil  figures  which  affect  the  construction 
of  words. 

423.  Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  a  word,  phrase, 
or  clause,  which  is  necessary  to  complete  the  con- 
struction. 

(a.)  Ellipsis  should  be  distinguished  ?r o\\i  ahrldgmcnt.  (ZA\.) 
[n  ellipsis  some  word  is  left  out,  but  in  abridgment  an  expression 
i-s  shortened  by  a  change  of  construction. 

(6.)  Ellipsis  differs  from  contraction.  By  contraction  a  com- 
pound sentence,  having  some  one  element  or  more  in  common,  is 
reduced  to  a  partial  compound  by  using  the  common  part  but 
once  ;  as,  "  Cicero  icas  a  distinguished  orator^  and  Demosthene? 
was  a  distinguished  orator  "  =  "  Cicero  and  Demosthenes  were 
distinguished  orators.'^  Althoucrh  this  last  sentence  is  sometimes 
said  to  be  elliptical,  nothing  is  necessary  to  complete  the  con 
struction. 

(  c.)  Ellipsis  should  be  distinguished  from  a  careless  omission 
of  words  necessary  alike  to  the  construction  and  meaning. 

424.  Ellipsis  generally  takes  place  in  exclama- 
tory sentences,  (397,)  in  responsives,  in  clauses  de- 
noting comparison,  (333,  a.)  in  inscriptions  and 
titles,  and  after  connectives  ;  as,  "  Strange  !  "  =  •'  It 
is  strange."  •'  Whom  did  you  see  ?  George  =  i 
saw  George."  "  The  New  Testament  "  =  ^'  This  is 
the  New  Testament."  "  He  is  older  than  I  =  than 
I  am  old." 

425.  Pleonasm  is  the  opposite  of  ellipsis.      It  la 

17* 


198  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 

-the  use  of  superiluous  words;    as,  "1  know  thtt 
who  thou  art ;  "   "  Verily,  verily^  I  say  unto  you." 

(a.)  Pleonasm  should  be  distinguished  from  expansion.  The 
former  consists  in  adding  an  element  to  express  what  has  been 
dlieadj  expressed,  whereas  the  latter  consists  in  changing  the  form 
of  an  expression  for  a  more  extended  form,  as  an  adverb,  an  adjec- 
tive, or  a  noun,  for  an  equivalent  phrase  or  clause. 

(6.)  Pleonasm  is  allowable  only  in  animated  discourse,  when 
an  idea  is  to  be  I'endered  emphatic. 

426.  Enallage,  wh  ich  means  exchange^  is  the  use 
of  one  word  or  form  for  another. 

427.  Enallage  may  refer  either  to  the  form  o/ 
meaning  of  words. 

428.  By  enallage,  as  it  respects  the  form  of 
words,  — 

{a.)  One  part  of  speech  may  be  used  for  an- 
other ;  as,  ''  They  fall  successive\\.Y^  and  successive\\.y] 
rise." 

( 6. )  One  number  may  be  used  for  another  ;  as, 
we  for  /,  you  for  tUou. 

(c.)  One  tense  may  be  used  for  another,*  as, 
"He  risetk  from  supper,  and  laid  aside  his  gar- 
ments," &c. 

Note.  When  a  past  or  future  tense  is  exchanged  for  the  pres- 
ent, the  figure  is  called  vision,  that  is,  seeing  past  or  future  events 
as  if  present. 

429.  Enallage,  as  it  respects  the  meaning  of 
words,  gives  rise  to  several  figures,  called  tropes. 

430  The  principal  tropes  are,  metaphor,  personi 
Jicaticn,  nMonymy,  synecdoche,  and  irony. 

431  Metaphor  gives  to  an  object  the  appropriate 
name  d'  iiui^'h'n'  o];ject,  on  account  of  some  resem- 
oiaacc  betweeji  them;  as,  "  ?^lan  !  thou  pendulum 
betwi^:t  ;i   smile  and   tear.'' 


ANALYSIS    OF     SENTENCiilS.  199 

(a.)    Wiieu  the  resemblance  is  slated  formall}'',  tlie  figure  is 
called  a  simile  ;  as,  "  They  rushed  through  like  a  hurricane.' 
(b.)    A  continued  metaphor  is  called  an  allegory. 

432.  Persomjication  attributes  to  inanimate  ob- 
lects   some  of  the  qualities   of  living  beings ;   as^ 

*  The  sky  saddens  with  the  gathered  storm." 

(a.)  These  two  figures  generally  produce  some  change  in  the 
ase  of  pronouns ;  as  when  we  apply  the  feminine  pronoun  she 
(not  it)  to  the  moon  ;  or  when  we  say  of  a  statesman,  "  He  is  the 
pillar  ichich  (not  who)  supports  the  state." 

433.  Metonymy  ^  IS  a  change  of  name.  It  gives 
to  one  object  the  name  of  another  which  is  related 
to  it;  as,  crown  for  king,  chair  {or president. 

434.  Synecdoche  is  the  use  of  a  part  for  the 
whole,  or  the  whole  for  a  part  ;  as,  roof  for  house. 

435.  Irony  is  the  use  of  a  word  for  its  opposite. 

436.  Hyperbaton  is  the  transposition  of  words. 

(rt.)  This  figure  has  already  been  explained  in  Sec.  II.  of  this 
chapter 

Exercise  66. 

Tell  what  figures  are  used  in  the  following  sen- 
tences :  — 

A  Oreek  Dictionary.  Lnpossible !  C4o.  He  speaks  as 
if  he  had  been  sick.  I  saw  it  with  my  eyes.  He  walked 
on  foot.  Dark  burned  the  candle.  For  Renard  close 
attended  al  his  heels.  And  he  taketh  with  him  Peter,  and 
James  and  John,  and  began  to  be  sore  amazed.  Devotion 
is  a  delicate  and  XxiuAix  plant.  The  cherished  fields  p?i/ 
j)n  their  ivinter  robe  of  purest  white.  The  boy  has  read 
Virgil.  They  have  3Ioses  and  the  prophets.  His  arm  is 
conquest.,  and  his  frown  is  fate.  This  roof  protects  you 
He  was  as  virtuous  as  Nero,  and  as  patriotic  as  Arnold. 


200  ANAI.  rSi3    OF    SENTENCES. 

SECTION    IV. 

EQUIVALENTS. 

437.  Two  different  eocpressions,  meaning  the 
same  thing  or  nearly  the  same,  are  called  equiva- 
lents;  aSj  ''Xerxes  ordered  that  Mar donius  should 
remain  in  Greece  =  Mardonius  to  remain  in 
Greece^ 

(  a.)  Equivalent  expressions  often  have  shades  of  difference  in 
meaning.  In  the  above  example,  the  first  Itahcized  form  implies 
that  the  command  v/as  given  in  a  general  way  ;  tlie  second,  that 
it  was  given  personally  to  Mardonius. 

( b.)  Equivalents  in  signification  are  by  no  means  equivalents 
in  grammatical  construction  j  nor  is  the  grammatical  construction 
of  one  form  accounted  for  by  explaining  that  of  its  equivalent. 

438.  Two  different  words,  meaning    the    same 

thingj  or  nearly  the  same,  are  called  synonymes ;  as, 

relinquish  =  abandon. 

(a.)  There  are,  iimnost  cases,  shades  of  difference  between 
words  considered  as  synonymous. 

439.  By  means  of  equivalents,  synonymes,  or 
both,  any  sentence  may  be  materially  changed  in 
form,  with  little  or  no  change  in  meaning. 

440.  In  simple  sentences  we  may  obtain  equiv- 
\  alent  forms,  — 

^^  (a.)  By  denying  the  opposite  of  that  which  is 
affirmed  ;  as,  "  He  was  jiot  unskilful  "  =  "  He  was 
skilful  ;''■— 

(6.)  By  using  the  passive  for  the  active  voice,  or 
the  active  for  the  passive ;  as,  "  Columbus  dis- 
f^overed  America  "  =  "  America  was  discovered  by 
Columbus;"  — 


L 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES.  201 

(c.)   By   expanding   or   abridging    an    element 
( 178,  b.) ;  aSj  '^  A  morning  ride  is  refreshing  "  =  "  A 
ride  in  the  morning  is  refreshing  ; "  — 

(d.)  By  using  the  expletive  it  (196,  a.);  as, 
''  To  see  the  sun  is  pleasant  "  =^  "  It  is  pleasant  to 
see  the  sun." 

Note.      Synonymes   may   be   employed   with   any   of   these 
changes 

441.  A  simple  sentence  may  be  changed  to  a 
complex  by  expanding  any  one  of  its  elements  into 
a  proposition ;  as,  "  Having  completed  his  discov- 
ery, Hudson  descended  the  river  "=:  ^^  After  he  had 
completed  his  discovery, ^^  &c. 

442.  A  complex  sentence  may  be  changed  to  an 
equivalent  simple  sentence  by  abridging  its  sub- 
ordinate clause.     (342.) 

443.  A  complex  sentence  may  be  changed  to  an 
equivalent  complex  sentence,  — ^ 

(a.)  By  making  any  of  the^Hianges  mentioned 
m   IT  440,  «,  b,  c,  d,  in  either  of  its  clauses ;  — 

(6.)  By  using  various  equivalent  connectives, 
as,  when  for  as  or  as  soon  as. 

(c.)    By  using  the  expletive  it.     (See  2S2.) 

444.  A  complex  sentence  may  be  changed  to  a 
compound,  by  raising  its  subordinate  clause  to  an 
equal  rank  with  the  principal ;  as,  "When  spring 
comes,  the  flowers  will  bloom  "  =  "  Spring  comes, 
and  the  flowers  bloom." 

445.  A  compound  sentence  may  be  changed  to 
a  complex,  by  making  one  of  its  clauses  subordi- 
nate ;   as,  "  Man  has  a  moral  sense,  and,  therefore, 


202  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 

he  is  an  accountable  being  "  =  *'  Since  man  has  a 
moral  sense,  he  is  an  accountable  being." 

446.  A  compound  sentence  may  be  changed  to 
an  equivalent  compound,  by  altering  either  of  its 
clauses.     (440,  a,  6,  c,  d.) 

447.  A  question  for  gaining  assent  may  be 
changed  into  a  declarative  sentence,  or  a  declara- 
tive sentence  into  a  question  for  gaining  assent. 
(See  395.) 

Note.  After  the  learner  has  acquired  a  correct  knowledge  of 
the  various  forms  and  conditions  of  the  elements  of  a  sentence, 
perhaps  no  exercise,  in  connection  with  composition,  will  prove 
more  beneficial  than  that  of  re- writing  sentences,  for  the  purpose 
of  altering  and  improving,  if  possible,  their  form  or  arrangement, 
ft  is  the  only  substitute  which  the  mere  English  scholar  can  have 
for  translation,  an  exercise  which  consists  in  obtaining  equivalent 
forms  in  one  language  for  given  forms  in  another.  It  is  to  exer- 
cises of  this  kind  that  Dr.  Franklin  attributes  his  skill  in  writing. 
It  is  a  sure  way  to  giv^e  the  pupil  variety  of  expression,  copious- 
ness of  diction,  and  a  knowledge  of  the  flexibility  and  power  of 
the  language.  As  it  sflaects  a  choice  of  words  and  expressions, 
no  rules  of  grammar  cSF  materially  aid  the  learner.  He  should 
study  standard  authors,  such  as  Addison,  Middleton,  and  Irving. 
A  perusal  of  these  will  assist  him  in  obtaining  correct  forms  of 
expression,  and  enable  him  to  avoid  all  low  and  unauthorizec^ 
words. 

Exercise    67. 
Alt'^r  the  foUoiving  sentences  by  using  synonymes  :  — 

Thankfulness  is  an  agreeable  feeling.  They  are  sowing 
the  seeds  of  strife.  The  hypocrite  writhes  in  agony.  The 
maid-servant  is  lighting  the  fire.  They  shrink  from  the 
lontest.     Fie  is  slaj  Ing  his  enemies. 

Model.     Gi^alitude  is  a  delightful  emotion 

Take  a  page  J^om  your  reading  lesson^  ana  mnJce 
any  of  the  changes  mentioned  in  this  section. 


APPENDIX. 


English  Grammar  teaches  the  principles  of  ihe  Eng- 
lish language. 

These  principles  refer  to  the  formation  of  words  or  the 
fo^matio7i  of  sentences. 

The  first  department  embraces  orthography  and  etymoh 
ogy^  —  the  second,  syntax  and  prosody. 

Note.  Prosody  relates  to  the  formation  of  sentences  into 
verse. 

Orthography  treats  of  letters  and  their  various  combina- 
tions. 

Etymology  treats  of  the  different  ^^ses  of  words  and 
their  various  modifications.  ^T^ 

Syntax  treats  of  the  construction  of  sentences. 

Prosody  treats  of  the  laws  of  versification. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 

LESSON    I. 

Orthography  treats  of  letters  and  their  various  com- 
binations. 

A  letter  is  a  character  used  to  represent  an  elementary 
sound  of  the  language, 


204  APPENDIX. 

The   elemenlary  sounds  of  the  language  are,— - 

^^1.)    Vocals^^  or  pure  voice  only  ;  as,  a,  e,  i,  o,  u; 

(2.)  Suhvocals^  or  voice  and  breath  united  ;  as,  b,  d^  m, 
n,  Z,  r; 

(3.)    Asjnrates^  or  pure  breath  only  ;  as,  /?,  /,  k^f. 

Those  letters  which  represent  the  first  class,  are  called 
vowels ;  those  which  represent  the  second  and  third,  are 
called  consonants. 

There  are  only  twenty-six  letters  of  the  alphabet  to  represent 
about  forty  elementary  sounds;  hence  several  letters  are  used 
to  represent  each  more  than  one  sound. 

Of  the  twenty-six  letters  of  the  alphabet,  five  (a,  c,  t,  o,  and  u) 
are  vowels ;  two  {w  and  y)  are  either  vowels  or  consonants  ;  the 
remaining  nineteen  are  consonants.  W  and  y  are  consonants 
when  they  precede  a  vowel  in  the  same  syllable  ;  as  in  wine_ 
twine,  yes,  yet.     In  any  other  situation  they  are  vowels. 

Ten  of  the  consonants  (ft,  d,  g,j,  I,  m,  n,  r,  v,  z)  are  subvocals- 
eight  (/,  A,  k,  c,  q,  p,  t,  s)  are  aspirates ;  a;  is  a  subvocal  when  it 
is  equivalent  to  gs,  an  aspirate  when  it  is  equivalent  to  ks. 

A  diphthong  is  the  union  of  two  vowels  in  one  syllable ; 
as  ou  in  sound.        jflb 

A  proper  diphthong  is  one  in  which  both  vowels  are 
sounded  ;  as  oi  in  noise. 

An  improper  diphthong  is  one  in  which  only  one  of  the 
vowels  is  sounded ;  as  ea  in  heat. 

A  triphthong  is  the  union  of  three  vowels  in  one  sylla- 
ble ;  as  eau  in  beauty. 

Ajoy  oper  triphthong  m  one  in  which  the  three  vowels  are 
sounded  ;  as  uoy  in  buoy. 

An  improper  triphthong  is  one  m  which  only  one  or  two 
of  the  vowels  are  sounded ;  as  ieio  in  view. 

*  It  is  impossible  to  represent  these  distinctions  in  anv   waj 
except  by  the   living   voice.      The   pupil  should,   theretore,   De 
taught  to  give  the  elementary  sounds  (not  the  name  sounds'  ol 
the  letters  till  the  distinction  becomes  familiar 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  205 


LESSON    II. 

SYLLABLES     AND     WORDS. 

A  syllable  is  a  letter,  or  combination  of  letters,  uttered 
by  one  impulse  of  the  voice  ;  as,  ab^  id.  A  word  is  either 
a  syllable  or  a  union  of  syllables;  as,  mat^  mat-ter^  mU' 
te-ri'ol. 

A  word  of  one  syllable  is  called  a  monosyllable ;  a  word 
of  two  sjdlables,  a  dissyllable  ;  a  word  of  three  syllables,  a 
trisyllable ;   a  word  of  four   or  more   syllables,   a  poly 
syllable. 

Words  are  either  U7iderived,  derived^  or  compounded. 

The  first  are  called  radical  or  primitive  words ;  the 
second,  derivative ;  the  third,  compound. 

Derivative  words  are  formed  from  primitives  by  means 
of  some  additional  syllable  ;  as,  good^  goodness  ;  real^ 
realize  ;  grateful,  ungrateful.  ^L 

When  the  added  syllable  is  placea  before  the  radical 
word,  it  is  called  a  prefix ;  as,  reprove,  improve,  dXsprove, 
disprove. 

When  the  added  syllable  is  placed  after  the  radical 
word,  it  is  called  a  suffix;  ^s,fearh\\,  fearless,  fearing, 
feared. 

Compound  words  are  formed  by  uniting  two  primitive  or 
derivative  words  ;  as,  book-case,  book-binder. 

A  radical  word  represents  a  single  idea,  —  a  derivative,  soiiie 
modification  of  an  idea,  —  a  compound,  two  distinct  ideas  Uiiited. 
It  is  worthy  of  notice,  that  these  three  classes  of  words  Lear  a 
Btrikina  resemblance  to  the  three  classes  of  sentences.  Tlie  sim- 
Die  sentence  represents  a  single  thought;  in  the  complex  sen 
lence,  that  thought  is  modified  by  the  subordinate  clau-se  ;  in  the 
compound  sentence,  two  distinct  thoughts  are  united. 

18 


206  APPENDIX. 

Derivative  words  may  be  formed  either  by  inflection  or 
by  dey^ivation. 

By  inflection  the  application  of  a  word  is  changed,  but 
not  its  classification. 

It  is  the  same  part  of  speech  after  the  change  as  before. 

By  derivation  both  the  application  and  classification  aje 

changed,  and  the  meaning  is  modified. 

Thus,  from  the  noun  fear,  we  have,  by  inflection,  the  noun 
fears,  which  denotes  more  than  one :  from  the  same  word,  we 
have,  by  derivation,  the  ndiectives  fearful,  fearless^  or  the  adverbs 
fearfully,  fearlessly. 


X   ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology  treats  of  the  diiferent  classes  of  words  and 
Iheir  various  modifications. 


LESSON    L 

PARTS     OF     SPEECH. 

There  are  in  English  eight  classes  of  words,  called  parts 
of  speech,  namely,  the  nmm,  the  pronoun,  the  adjective,  the 
verb,  the  adverb,  the  preposition,  the  conjunction,  and  the 
interjection. 

Of  these  parts  of  speech,  five  (the  noun,  pronoun,  adjective, 
verb,  and  adverb)  are  used  as  the  constituent  parts  (176)  of  a 
sentence ;  two  (the  preposition  and  conjunction)  are  used  as  con' 
nectives  of  those  parts;  one  (the  interjection)  has  no  grammatical 
construction 

Conjunctive  adverbs,  relative  pronouns,  and  all  attributive 
verbs  (35,  a.)  are  both  constituent  elements  and  connectives. 


CLASSES  OP  THE  NOUN  AND  PRONOUN. 


207 


A  noun  Is  the  name  of  an  object ;  as,  fruity  Henry 
Boston, 

A  pronoim  is  a  word  which  takes  the  place  of  a  noun , 
as,  Ae,  she,  it. 

An  adjective  is  a  word  used  to  limit  or  qualify  the  mean* 
ing  of  a  noun  ;  as,  good,  faithful,  this,  some. 

A  verb  is  a  word  which  expresses  being,  action,  or  state  ; 
as,  be,  read,  sleep,  is  loved. 

An  adverb  is  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a  verb,  ad- 
jective, or  another  adverb  ;  as,  quickly,  first,  far. 

A  preposition  is  a  word  used  to  show  the  relation  be- 
tween a  noun  or  pronoun  and  some  preceding  word ;  as, 
upon,  on,  with. 

A  conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  either  words 
phrases,  or  propositions ;  as,  and,  but,  or. 

An  interjection  is  a  word  used  to  express  some  emorion 
of  the  mind ;  as,   oh  !  alas  ! 


LESSON  II. 


CLASSES    OF    THE    NOUN    AND    PRONOUN 


Note.     This  lesson  is  referred  to  on  page  19.     It  should  be 
Btudied  in  connection  with  the  subject  of  a  sentence. 


Nouns. 

A  noun  is  the  name  of  an 

object. 

The  word  object,  as  here  used, 
embraces  every  species  of  ex- 
istence, whether  material  or 
immaterial. 


Pronouns. 

A    pronoun    is    a    word 

which  takes  the   place  of  a 

noun. 

The  pronoun  is  used  to  repre. 
sent  an  object  as  having  been 
previously    mentioned,    or     as 


208 


APPENDIX. 


Nouns. 

Nouns  are  divided  into 
two  classes,  — proper  and 
common 

A  jiroper  noun  is  the 
name  of  an  individual  ob- 
ject ;  as,  James,,  Erie. 

A  common  noun  is  a 
name  which  applies  to  each 
individual  of  a  class  of  ob- 
jects ;  as,  man,,  boy,,  house. 

Under  the  head  of  com- 
mon nouns  are  commonly 
reckoned  collective,,  abstract^ 
and  verbal  nouns. 

A  collective  noun  is  one 
which,  in  the  singular,  de- 
notes more  than  one  object ; 
as,  army,,  family ,,Jiock. 

An  abstract  noun  is  the 
name  of  a  property  con- 
sidered apart  from  the  ob- 
ject to  which  it  belongs  ;  as, 
goodness,,  virtue,,  wisdom. 

A  verbal  noun  is  a  parti- 
ciple used  as  a  noun  •  as, 
"He  was  convicted  of 
stealing.'^'' 

Tho  infinitive  is  a  kind  of 
verbal  noun ;  as,  "  To  see  the 
sun  is  pleasant." 

A  phrase  or  entire  prop- 
o:sition  may  bo  used  as  a 
Qoun ;  as^     jprom  Boston  to 


Pronoun 

having    some    relation    to    the 
speaker. 

Pronouns  are  divided  in 
to  three  classes,  — personal, 
relative,  and  interrogative. 

A  personal  pronoun  is 
used  both  to  represent  a 
noun,  and  to  show  whether 
it  is  of  the  Jirst,,  second,  or 
thii^d  person. 

Note.  Relative  and  inter- 
rogative pronouns  will  be  treat- 
ed of  hereafter. 

I  (plural,  we)  is  of  the 
Jirst  person  ;  thou  (plural  ye 
or  you)  is  of  the  second  per- 
son ;  he,  she,  and  it,  (plural, 
they,)  are  of  the  third  per- 
son, masculine,  feminine, 
and  neuter,  respectively. 

When  self  (plural,  selves) 
is  added  to  the  personal 
pronouns,  they  are  called 
compound  personal  pro- 
nouns ;  as,  myself,  thyself 
himself 

These  seldom,  if  ever,  are 
used  as  the  subject ;  they  may 
be  in  apposition  with  the 
subject. 

It   is    often    used    in    a 

vague  sense,  as  the  subject 

,  "^f  verbs  descriptive  of  the 


NUMBER    OF    THE    SOU  Hi    OR    PRONOUN. 


209 


IVOUNS. 

Providence  is  a  pleasant 
route  ; "  "  That  you  have 
v>ronged  me,  doth  appear  in 
this." 

Note.  The  noun  is  often 
called  a  substantive.  All  phra- 
ses or  clauses  used  as  nouns  are 
called  substantive  phrases  or 
clauses. 


Pronouns. 


rams; 


weather ;  as,  "  It 
"It  thunders."  It  is  used 
as  an  expletive.,  (196,  a.)  or 
when  we  wish  to  identify  a 
person,  (60,  h.)  or  when  we 
wish  to  introduce  a  noun 
with  emphasis.    (196,  a.) 


LESSON    III. 


NUMBER  OF  THE  NOUN  OR  PRONOUN 


Note.  This  lesson  is  referred  to  on  page  22,  and  should  be 
studied  in  connection  with  the  "  JSumher  of  the  Subject." 

Number  is  that  property  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  which 
distinguishes  one  object  from  more  than  one. 

The  noun  or  pronoun  has  two  numbers,  —  the  singular 
and  plural. 

The  singular  number  denotes  but  one  object ;  as,  horse^ 
river  J  nation. 

The  plural  denotes  more  than  one  object ;  as,  horses^ 
rivers.,  nations. 

The  plural  of  nouns  is  regularly  formed,  — 

(1.)  By  adding  5  when  the  singular  ends  with  a  sound 
that  can  unite  v/ith  s  ;  as,  hook.,  books ;  tree.,  trees ;  — 

(2.)  By  adding  es  when  the  singular  ends  with  a  sound 
that  cannot  unite  with  s  ;  as,  hox^  hoxes  ;  church.,  churches. 

Many  nouns  form  their  plurals  more  or  less  irregularly. 

Many  nouns  ending  with  y  preceded  by  a  consonant,  or  with 
/  or  /c,  follow  the  general  rule  for  the  addition,  but  undergo  a 

18* 


2i0 


iFPENDlX. 


ehanire   in  theii   termination;    as,  duty^  duties ;  fly,  flies ,  knife, 
knives. 

When  ij  IS  preceded  by  a  vowel,  the  plural  is  formed  regularly  ; 
as,  dayydays  ;  play,  plays. 

The  following  nouns  form  the  plural  irregularly  :  —  child,  chil- 
dren ;  vian,  men;  tooman,  women;  brother,  brothers  or  brethren; 
louse,  lice  ;  mouse,  mice  ;  die,  dice,  {(lies,  when  it  means  a  stamp  ;) 
tooth,  teeth  ;  foot,feU  ;  goose,  geese  ;  penny,  jjcnce  or  pennies. 

Proper  nouns,  most  abstract  nouns,  and  nouns  denoting  sub- 
stance, have  no  plural ,  as,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  iron,  gold,  ice^ 
patience,  idleness. 

Proper  nouns,  however,  may  take  the  plural  form  when  two 
or  more  persons  are  classed  together;  as,  "the  Csesars,"  "  the 
Scipios." 

When  a  title  is  prefixed  to  a  proper  name  so  as  to  form  one 
complex  noun,  the  name  is  generally  varied  to  form  the  plural ; 
as,  "the  Miss  Browns." 

Some  nouns  are  used  only  in  the  plural ;  as,  riches,  scissors^ 
shears,  lungs. 

Some  are  alike  in  both  numbers  ;  as,  deer,  sheep,  swine. 

Many  nouns  from  foreign  languages  retain  their  original  plu 
rals;  as,  datum,  data;   stratum,  strata;  axis,  axes,  seraph,  sera- 
phim  ;  beau,  beaux. 

The  plural  of  the  pronouns  is  formed  irregularly  ;  as,  /,  loe; 
Lhou,  ye. 


LESSON    IV. 

GENDER  OF  THE  NOUN  OR  PRONOUN. 

Note.     This  lesson  is  referred  to  on  page  23. 

Gender  is  a  distinction  of  nouns  or  pronouns  in  regard 
tc  sex. 

There  are  three  genders  —  the  masculine,  feminine.,  and 
neuter. 


PERSON    OF    THE    NOUN    OR    PRONOUN.  211 

Nouns  or  pronouns  which  denote  males  are  of  the  mas* 
culine  gender ;  as,  mari,  heroes,  they. 

Nouns  or  pronouns  which  denote  females  are  of  the 
fejni?iine  gender  ;  as,  girl,  she ;  loomen,  they. 

Nouns  or  pronouns  which  denote  objects  without  life, 

are  of  the  neuter  gender  ;  as,  tree,  it ;  flowers,  they. 

^ouns  which  are  equally  applicable  to  a  male  or  female,  art 
sometimes  said  to  be  of  the  common  gender  ;  a.s,  parent,  teacher 
But  such  nouns  must  be  either   masculine  or  feminine,  and  the 
true  gender  may  generally  be  determined  by  the  connection. 

By  a  figure  of  speech,  (personification,)  inanimate  objects 
are  spoken  of  as  male  or  female.  Thus,  in  speaking  of  a 
ship,  we  say,  "  She  sails." 

There  are  three  methods  of  distinguishing  the  sexes  ;  — 

(1.)  By  using  different  words;  as,  man,  looman ;  ram^ 
ewe  ;  king,  queen  ;  — 

(2.)  By  a  difference  of  termination  ;  as,  ahhot,  abbess  ; 
actor,  actress  ;  poet,  poetess ;  — 

(3.)  By  prefixes  and  suffixes;  as,  ??ia?i-servant,  maid 
servant ;  Ae-goat,  sAe-goat ;  Xand-lord,  ]a.nd-lady. 

Personal  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  person  have 
no  form  to  indicate  gender. 

Those  of  the  third  person  have  a  distinct  form  for 
each  slender  ;  as,  he,  masculine  ;  she,  feminine  ;  it,  neuter. 


LESSON    V. 
PERSON    OF    THE    NOUN    OR    PRONOUN. 

Note.     This  lesson  is   to  be  studied  in  connection  with  the 
person  of  the  subject. 

Person  is  that   property  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  wtuch 
shows  its  relation  to  the  speaker. 


212  APl'ENDIX. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  must  represent  either  the  speaker^  the  per- 
«on  svohen  to^  or  the  person  or  thing  spukcn  oj. 

There  are  three  persons,  —  ihe  Jirst,  seco?id^  and  third. 
^  The  jirst  person  denotes  the  speaker ;  as,  "  /,  /o/m, 
Bavv." 

The  second  person  denotes  the  person  spoken  .o ;  as, 
*  Childre7i^  obey  your  parents." 

The  third  person  denotes  the  person  or  thing  spoken 
of;  as,  "  Thomas  did  not  come;"  "The  harvest  is  abun- 
dant." 

JVouns  in  the  first  and  second  persons  are  never  used  as  the 
subject  or  object  of  a  verb,  but  may  be  in  apposition  with  either. 

It  is  the  appropriate  office  of  the  personal  pronouns  to  denote 
person. 


LESSON    VI. 

THE  CASE  OF  THE  NOUN  OR  PRONOUN. 

Note.  This  lesson  should  be  studied  in  connection  with  the 
case  of  the  subject.     See  "  Ca.se  of  the  Subject,"  page  25. 

Case  denotes  the  relation  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  to  other 
words. 

There  are  three  cases,  —  the  nominative, possessive,  a,nd 
ohjective. 

The  nominative  case  is  the  simplest  form  of  the  noun  or 
pronoun,  and  is  commonly  used  as  the  subject  of  a  propo- 
sition ;  as,  ''  George  speaks ;  "  "  The  door  was  shut." 

Besides  being  the  subject  of  a  proposition,  the  nominative  case 
may  be  used,  1st,  as  the  attribute  of  a  proposition,  (60;)  2d,  it 
may  be  used  to  identify  the  subject,  (104;)  3d,  it  may  be  inde- 
pendent of  any  other  word,  (13D;)  4th,  it  may  be  used  witi} 
a  participle  in  an  abridged  proposition,  (351.) 


DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS.   213 

The  possessive  case  denotes  the  relation  of  puoperty  oi 
possession  ;  as,  "  DavicTs  harp." 

The  possessive  case  of  nouns  is  formed  by  adding  an 
apostrophe  (')  and  the  letter  s  to  the  nominative ;  as, 
mail's^  men's. 

When  the  plural  ends  in  5,  the  apostrophe  only  is  added  ; 
a*^  hoys\ 

The  possessive  case  of  the  personal  pronouns  is  formed 
irregularly  ;  as,  I,  my  or  mine ;  tiiocj,  thy  or  thine ;  he,  his ; 
SHE,  her  or  hers. 

The  possessives  mine^  thinc^  hers^  ours^  yours^  and  theirs.,  are 
used  when  the  object  possessed  is  understood.  Hence  they  have 
the  construction  of  the  noun  ;  as,  '■'■  Mine  is  a  pleasant  task"=s 
**  My  task  is  pleasant ;  "  "I  gave  him  yours  " 

When  a  noun  or  pronoun  follows  a  transitive  verb  or  a 
preposition,  it  is  in  the  objective  case ;  as,  "  Thomas 
opened  his  kiiife ; "  "  The  bird  sat  on  the  tree.'' 


9» 


The  objective  case  of"  the  noun  is  the  same  in  form  as  the  noni' 
inative  ;  but  the  objective  case  of  a  personal  pronoun,  except  iU 
is  unlike  the  nominative ;  as,  /,  me  ;  thou.,  thee  ;  he.,  him  ;  she,  her 


DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. 

The  declension  of  a  notm  or  pronoun  is  its  variation  to 
denote  number  and  Aa«e. 


EXAMPLES. 


L^lfimsioji  j  ^  iouns. 

J.    Boy. 

Sin^.  Pliir. 

^«*m.      Boy,  Boys, 

Poss.       Boy's,  Boys', 

Obj.         Boys.  Boys. 


Declension  of  Pronouns. 
First  Person. 

Siyig.  Plur. 

ICom.     I,  We, 

Poss.     My,  mine.  Our,  oura 

Obj.       Me.  Us 


/ 


214 


APPENDIX 


2.   Fly. 


Sing. 

■i'om. 

Fly, 

Pass 

Flys, 

Ohj 

Fly. 

'V  m 

Puss. 
Ohj. 


JVom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 


JVom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 


3.   Fox. 

Sing 
Fox, 
Fox's, 
Fox. 

4.   John. 

John, 

John's, 

John. 


Plm. 

Flies, 

Flies', 

Flies. 


Plur. 
Foxes 
Foxes', 
Foxes. 


Phtr. 
Wanting. 


5.  Goodness. 

Sing.  Plur. 

Goodness,  Wanting. 

Goodness',  

Goodness.  


Second  Persoh 

Sing.  Plur. 

JVom.  riiou.  Ye,  you, 

Poss.  Thy,  thine.  Your,  yoursi 
Obj.     Thee.  You. 


Third  Person. 

Sing. 
JVoju.  He, 
Poss.  His, 
Obi.     Him. 

Third  Person. 

Sing 
JVom.  She, 
Poss.  Her,  hers, 
Obj.     Her. 


Masculine. 

Plur. 
They, 

Their,  theirs, 
Them. 

Feminine. 

Plur. 
They, 

Their,  theirs, 
Them. 


Third   Person.     Neuter 


Sing. 
JVom.  It, 
Poss.  Its, 
Ohj.     It. 


Plur. 
They, 

Their,  theirs. 
Them. 


<%• 


LESSON    VII. 


ADJECTIVE    WORDS 


Note.     This  lesson  is  referred  to  on  pages  31  and  50. 

That  jjart  which  relates  to  page  31  will  be  found  under  the 
head  of  "  Qualifying  Adjectives.'^  All  words  which  have  the 
construction  of  the  adjective,  are  heie  considered  under  the  head 
of  '■'■  Adjective  Words^"  whatever  may  be  their  particular  classifi. 
cation. 

An  adjective  is  a  word  used  to  limit  or  qualify  the 
meaning  of  a  noun. 


ADJECTIVE    WORDS.  215 

All  adJ6crFvc  words  are  aivided  into  two  classes  —  limit' 
*hg  and  qualifying. 

I.  — LIMITING    ADJECTIVES 

A  limiting  adjective  is  used  to  define  or  restrict  the 
meaning  of  a  noun,  without  expressing  any  of  its  qualities , 
as,  "  the  house ; "  '■'-Jive  books ; "  "  Arabian  horses." 

Articles, 

The  particular  limiting  adjectives  tlie^  and  a  or  an,  are 
called  articles. 

The  is  called  the  definite  article,  because  it  points  out 
some  particular  thing  ;  as,  "  the  desk,"  "  the  sun." 

A  or  an  is  called  an  indefinite  article,  because  it  does  not 
point  out  any  particular  thing ;  as,  "  a  pen ;  "  "  an  or- 
chard." 

An  is  used  before  a  vowel  sound,  and  a  before  a  consonan* 
aound ;  as,  "  an  apple  j  "  "  rt  pin." 

Pronominal  Adjectives. 

Those  limiting  adjectives  which  may,  without  the  use  oi 
the  article,  represent  a  noun  when  understood,  are  called 
'pronominal  adjectives ;  as,  "  That  [book]  is  his ;  this  ia 
yours." 

Qualifying  adjectives  may  represeriL  9  noiin  when  understood, 
but  the  article  must  be  prefixed;  as,  "  The  good  are  happy." 

The   principal    pronominal   adjectives    are,  —  this^    t/iaty  these^ 
those^  former,  lattery   whichy  what,  each,    every,   cither,  neither 
some,  one,  none,  any,  all^  sxich,  many,  much. 

When  such  adjectives  represent  a  noun  understood,  they  are 
generally  called  pronouns.  They  may  more  properly  be  called 
pronominal  adjectives  used  as  rouns;  as,  "  This  is  my  book.'' 
The  articles  never  reuresent  a  noun  understood. 


APPENDIX. 

Numeral  Adjectives 

iSumerai  adjectives  are  used  to  express  number;    as, 

ime,  two^  three,  &c. 

Numerals  are  divided  into  two  classes, — 
Cardinal;  as,  one,  tv>o,  three,  four,  &c.;  — 
Ordinal;  a.s, first,  second,  third,  fourth,  &c. 

Circumstantial  Adjectives. 

Circumstaritial  adjectives  are  such  as  denote  some  cir- 
cumstance, generally  of  time  or  jjJace ;  as,  "a  morning 
walk ; "  " an  eastern  custom  ; "  "a  Turkish  vessel." 

II.— QUALIFYING    ADJECTIVES. 

A  qualifying  adjective  is  one  which  limits  the  meanmg 
of  a  noun,  by  denoting  some  property  or  quality  ;  as,  "  a 
virtuous  man ; "  "a  running  horse." 
N(^  To  this  class  of  adjectives  belong  the  participles,  which 
have  the  signification  of  the  verb  and  the  construction  of 
the  adjective.     (77,  a.) 


COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

When  different  objects  are  compared  with  each  other, 
the  adjective  expressing  the  property  by  means  of  which 
they  are  compared,  undergoes  a  change  called  comparison. 

There  are  three  degrees  of  comparison,  —  the  positive.^ 
comparative,  and  superlative. 

The  positive  simply  denotes  a  quality;  as,  righteous, 
fleojsant. 

The  comparative   shows  that  one  of  two   objects   poa 


«;l.asse=  of   verbs.  217 

88?s*ys  a  qualiiy  in  a  higher  degree  than  the  other ;  ;t'>, ''  This? 
tree  is  taller  than  that. ' 

The  superlative  shows  that  one  oi"  several  objects  pos- 
sesses a  quahty  in  the  highest  degree,  when  compared  with 
all  the  rest ;  as,  '•'•  That  pine  is  the  tallest  tree  in  the  grove." 

The  comparative  of  monosyUables  is  regularly  ibr.ned 
by  adding  r  or  er,  and  the  superlative  by  adding  5^  o\  esty 
to    the    positive;    as,   wise^  wiser ^  wisest;   hold,  bo'der, 
boldest. 

The  comparative  of  most  adjectives  of  more  than   cne 

syllable,  is  formed  by  prefixing  more  or  less,  and  the  suj  er- 

lative,  by  prefixing  most  or  least,  to  the  positive ;  as,  m 

dustrious,  more  industrious,  most  industrious. 

The    following    adjectives  are    compared  irregularly: — go^id, 
better,  first ;   bad,  worse,  worst ;  ill,   xcorse,  loorst ;  tittle,  less  or 
lesser,  least;  muck,  more,  most;  manij,  more,  most ;  far,  farther, 
farthest ;  near,  nearer,  nearest  or  next ;  late,  later,  latest  or  last 
old,  older  or  elder,  oldest  or  eldest. 


LESSON    VIII. 

CLASSES    OF    VERBS. 

See  page  34. 

A  verb  is  a  word  which  expresses  being,  action,  or 
state ;  as,  be,  read,  sleep,  is  loved. 

The  being,  action,  or  state,  may  be  affirmed,  assumed,  or 
used  abstractly  ;  as,"  George  runs;''''  "  George  running ;'^^ 
'-'■  to  run.''^ 

Verbs  are  divided,  according  to  their  use,  into  transitite    . 
and  intransitive.  i^ 

A  tj-ansitive  verb  requires  .triQ_ addition  of  an  object  to 
complete  its  meaning ;  as,   '  James  struck  John.^'' 

19 


218 


APPENDIX. 


An  intransitive  verb  does  not  require  the  addition  of  aD 
object  to  complete  its  meaning  ;  as,  "  The  horse  runs.''^ 

Verbs  are  divided,  according  to  their ^orTTi,  into  regulr* 
and  irregular. 

A  regular  verb  is  one  in  which  the  past  tense  and  past 
participle  are  formed  by  adding  d  or  ed  to  the  present ;  as, 
love^  loved.,  loved ;  gain,  gained^  gained. 

An  irKMular  verb  is  one  in  which  the  past  tense  and 
past  participle  are  formed  in  some  other  way ;  as,  see, 
saio,  seen ;  lorite,  wrote,  written. 

The  present,  past,  and  past  participle  of  a  verb  are 
called  its  'principal  parts. 

The  following  list  contains  the  principal  parts  of  the 
irregular  verbs:'— 


Prcsctvt. 

Pasu 

Past  Participle 

Abide, 

Abode, 

Abode. 

Am, 

Was, 

Been. 

Awake, 

Awoke,  F  * 

Awaked 

Bear,  {to 

bring  forth,)  Bore, 

Born. 

Bear,  {to 

carry,)            Bore, 

Borne. 

Beat, 

Beat, 

Beaten,  beat 

Begin, 

Began, 

Begun. 

Bend, 

Bent,  B 

Bent. 

Bereave, 

Bereft,  r. 

Bereft,  r. 

Beseech, 

Besought, 

Besought. 

Bid, 

Bid,  bade. 

Bidden,  bid. 

Bind, 

Bound, 

Bound. 

Bite, 

Bit, 

Bitten,  bit. 

Bleed, 

Bled, 

Bled. 

Blow, 

Blew, 

Blown. 

Break, 

Broke, 

Broken. 

Breed, 

Bred, 

Bred. 

Bring, 

Brought, 

Brought. 

Build, 

Built,  R. 

Built. 

Burn, 

Burnt,  R. 

Burnt,  R. 

*  Those  verba  whose  past  tense  or  past  participle  is  followed 
by  R.,  have  also  a  regular  furm  ;  as,  awoke  or  awakea 


IRREGULAR    VERBS. 


21) 


Present. 

Past. 

Past  Pardeiple, 

Burst, 

Burst, 

Burst. 

Buv, 

Bought, 

Bought. 

Cast, 

Cast, 

Cast. 

Catch, 

Caught,  R. 

Caught  B. 

Chide," 

Chid, 

Chidden,  chii 

Choose, 

Chose, 

Chosen. 

Cleave,  (to  adhere,) 

Cleaved, 

Cleaved. 

Cleave,  (to  split,) 

Clove,  clefl. 

Cloven.            ^ 

Cling, ' 

Qung, 

Clung. 

Clothe, 

Clad,  R. 

Clad,  R. 

Come, 

Came, 

Come, 

Cost, 

Cost, 

Cost. 

Creep, 

Crept, 

Crept. 

Crow, 

Crew,  R. 

Crowed. 

Cut, 

Cut, 

Cut. 

Dare, 

Durst, 

Dared. 

Deal, 

Dealt,  R. 

Dealt,  r. 

Dig, 

Dug,  R. 

Dug,  R. 

Do, 

Did, 

Done. 

Draw, 

Drew, 

Drawn. 

Dream, 

Dreamt,  r. 

Dreamt,  b. 

Drink, 

Drank, 

Drunk,  dranfi 

Drive, 

Drove, 

»      Driven. 

Dwell, 

Dwelt,  r. 

Dwelt,  R. 

Eat, 

Ate,  eat. 

Eaten. 

Fall, 

Fell, 

Fallen. , 

Feed, 

Fed, 

Fed. 

Feel, 

Felt, 

Felt. 

Fight, 

Fought, 

Fought. 

Find, 

Found, 

Found. 

Flee, 

Fled, 

Fled. 

Fling, 

Flung, 

Flung. 

Fly, 

Flew, 

Flown. 

Forsake, 

Forsook, 

Forsaken. 

Freeze, 

Froze, 

Frozen. 

Freight, 

Freighted, 

Fraught,  r. 

Get, 

Got, 

Got,  gotten 

GUd, 

Gilt,  R. 

Gilt,  R. 

Gird, 

Girt,  r. 

Girt,  R. 

*  Give, 

Gave, 

Giv?n. 

au 


) 

APPENDIX. 

Present. 

PasL 

Past  Fartkipk 

Go, 

Went, 

Gone. 

Grave, 

Graved, 

Graven,  n. 

Grind, 

Ground, 

Ground. 

Crow, 

Grew, 

Grown. 

Hang, 

Hung, 

Hung. 

Have, 

Had, 

Had. 

Hear, 

Heard, 

Heard. 

Heave, 

Hove,  K. 

Hoven,  r. 

Hew, 

Hewed, 

Hewn,  R. 

Hide, 

Hid, 

Hidden,  hid 

Hit, 

Hit, 

Hit. 

Hold, 

Held, 

Held. 

Hurt, 

Hurt, 

Hurt. 

Keep, 

Kept, 

Kept. 

Kneel, 

Knelt,  B 

Knelt,  R. 

Knit, 

Knit,  R. 

Knit,  R. 

Know, 

Knew, 

Known 

Lade, 

Laded, 

Laden 

Lay, 

Laid, 

Laid 

Lead, 

Led, 

Led. 

Leave, 

Leii, 

Left. 

Lend, 

Lent, 

Lent 

Let,                 • 

Let, 

Let. 

Lie,  (to  recline j) 

Lay, 

Lain. 

Light, 

Lit,  R. 

Lit,  R. 

Load, 

Loaded, 

Laden,  r, 

Lose, 

Lost, 

Lost. 

iMake, 

Made, 

Made. 

Mean, 

Meant, 

Meant. 

Meet, 

Met, 

Met. 

Mow, 

Mowed, 

Mown,  R. 

Pay, 

Paid, 

Paid. 

Pen,  (to  enclose,) 

Pent,  R. 

Pent,  R. 

Put, 

Pui, 

Put. 

Quit, 

Quit,  R. 

Quit,  R. 

Read, 

Read, 

Read. 

Ren<1, 

Rent, 

Rent. 

Rid. 

Rid, 

Rid. 

Ride, 

Rode, 

Ridden. 

Ring, 

Rang,  rung, 

Rung        * 

mBEGULAR    VEilBS, 


221 


JVecent 

Past. 

Past  Partieip*s. 

Rise, 

Rose, 

Risen. 

Rive, 

Rived, 

Riven. 

Rue, 

Ran, 

Run. 

Savv 

Sawed, 

Sawn,  R. 

Say, 

Said, 

Said. 

See, 

Saw, 

Seen. 

Seek, 

Sought, 

Sought. 

Seethe. 

Sod,  R. 

Sodden. 

Sell, 

Sold," 

Sold. 

Send, 

Sent, 

Sent. 

Set, 

Bet, 

Set. 

Sit, 

Sat, 

Sat. 

Shal^e 

Shook, 

Shaken. 

Shape 

Shaped, 

Shapen,  r. 

Shave 

Shaved, 

Shaven,  r 

Shear, 

Sheared, 

Shorn,  r. 

Shed, 

Shed, 

Shed. 

Shine, 

Shone, 

Shone. 

Shoe, 

Shod, 

Shod. 

Shoot, 

Shot, 

Shot. 

Show, 

Showed, 

Shown 

Shred, 

Shred, 

Shred. 

Shrink, 

Shrunk,  shrank 

Shrunk. 

Shut, 

Shut, 

Shut. 

Sing, 

Sang,  sung. 

Sung. 

Sink, 

Sunk,  sank. 

Sunk. 

Slay, 

Slew, 

Slain. 

Sleep, 

Slept, 

Slept. 

Slid«, 

SUd, 

Slidden,  slid 

Sling, 

Slung, 

Slung. 

Slink, 

Slunk, 

Slunk. 

Slit, 

Slit, 

Slit,  K. 

Smite, 

Smote, 

Smitten,8mit 

Sow,  {to  scatter^) 

Sowed, 

Sown,  R. 

Speak, 

Spoke, 

Spoken. 

Speed, 

Sped, 

Sped. 

Spell, 

Spelt,  R 

Spelt,  R. 

Spend, 

Spent, 

Spent. 

Spill, 

Spilt,  R 

Spilt,  B. 

Spin, 

Spun, 

Spun 

19* 

cz 

APPENDIX. 

Presmi. 

Fast. 

Past  BurticifU 

Spit, 

Spit, 

Spit. 

Split, 

Split, 

Split. 

Spread, 

Spread, 

Spread. 

Spring, 

Sprang,  sprung. 

Sprung. 

Stand, 

Stood, 

Stood. 

Steal, 

Stole, 

Stolen. 

Stick, 

Stuck, 

Stuck. 

Sting, 

Stung, 

Stung. 

Stride, 

Strode,  strid. 

Stridden. 

Strike, 

Struck, 

Struck,  stricken. 

String, 

Strung, 

Strung. 

Strive, 

Strove, 

Striven. 

Strow  or  strew, 

Strowed  or  strewed, 

Strown,  strew !i,  s 

" 

Swear, 

Swore, 

Sworn. 

Sweat, 

Sweat,  K. 

Sweat,  R 

Sweep, 

Swept, 

SwepL. 

Swell, 

Swelled, 

Swollen,  R. 

Swim, 

Swam,  swum. 

Swum. 

Swing, 

Swung, 

Swung. 

Take, 

Took, 

Taken. 

Teach, 

Taught, 

Taught. 

Tear, 

Tore, 

Torn. 

Tell, 

Told, 

Told. 

.      \ 

Think, 

Thought, 

Thought. 

Thrive, 

Throve, 

Thriven. 

Throve, 

Threw, 

Thrown. 

Thrust, 

Thrust, 

Thrust. 

Tread, 

Trod, 

Trodden,  trod 

Was, 

Waxed, 

Waxen,  R. 

Wear, 

Wore, 

Worn. 

Weave, 

Wove, 

Woven. 

Weep, 

Wept, 

Wept. 

Wet, 

Wet,  R. 

Wet,  R. 

Whet, 

Whet,  R 

Whet,  R. 

w 

Win, 

Won, 

Won. 

Wind, 

Wound, 

Wound. 

Work, 

Wrought,  R 

Wrought,  R 

Wring, 

Wrung, 

Wrung. 

Write, 

Wrote, 

Written 

NUMBER,   PERSON,   AND  VOICE   OF  THE   VEKb.    22'3 

An  auxiliary  verb  is  one  which  is  employed  in  conjugat- 
ing other  verbs.  The  auxiliaries  arc,  do,  be,  have,  shall, 
will,  may,  can,  must. 

Defective  verbs  are  those  in  which  some  of  the  parts  are 
wanting.  They  are,  heware,  quoth,  ought,  and  all  the  aux- 
iliaries except  do,  he,  and  have.  These,  when  used  as  prin- 
cipal verbs,  have  all  their  parts. 


LESSON    IX. 
NUMBER,  PERSON,  AND  VOICE   OF  THE    VERB 

The  number  and  person  of  the  verb  are  properties 
which  show  its  agreement  with  the  subject.  Like  the  sub- 
ject, the  verb  has  two  numbers  and  three  persons. 

In  the  solemn  style,  the  second  person  singular  of  the  verb,  in 
the  present  tense,  is  formed  by  adding  st  or  est  to  the  first ;  but 
in  the  common  style,  it  ends  like  the  second  person  plural ;  tne 
third  person  singular  is  formed  by  adding  s  or  es. 

Voice  is  applied  to  the  two  forms  of  the  transitive  veib, 
and  is  either  active  or  passive. 

The  active  voice  i-epresents  the  subject  as  acting ;  as, 
"  John  struck  William." 

The  passive  voice  represents  the  subjec*  as  being  acted 
upon  ;  as,  "  William  was  struck  by  John.' 

The  passive  verb  is  formed  by  adding  the  passive  partici 
pie  of  a  transitive  verb  to  the  copula. 

Any  sentence  containing  a  transitive  verb  may  take  two  equiv 
alenl  forms,  —  one  in  which  the  verb  is  in  the  active  voice,  and 
the  other  in  which  it  is  in  the  passive.  When  the  verb  is  in  the 
passive  voice,  the  agent  is  in  the  objective  case  following  by ,  as, 
'»  William  was  struck  by  John."  Sometimes  the  agent  -s  omit 
ted  ;  as,  "  A  ])lnt  was  discovered  ' 


224  APPENDIX. 

LESSON    X. 

MODE    OF    THE    VERB. 

Note,     This  lesson  is  referred  to  on  page  38. 

Mode  shows  the  manner  in  wliich  an  attribute  is  asserted 
of  the  subject. 

There  are  commonly  reckoned  five  modes,  —  the  in- 
dicative^ potential^  subjunctive^  imperative^  and  infinitive. 

The  indicative  mode  asserts  a  thing  as  actually  exist- 
ing ;  as,  ''  James  is  rich ;  "  "  George  writes." 

The  potential  mode  asserts  a  thing  as  possible,  proballe^ 
or  necessary ;  as,  "  James  ?nay  be  rich  ; "  "  George  must 
write.'''' 

The  subjunctive  mode  asserts  a  thing  as  conditional  or 
doubtful ;  as,  "  If  James  be  rich ;  "  "  Should  George  write." 

The  imperative  mode  asserts  a  command,  an  exhortation, 
an  entreaty,  or  a  permission ;  as,  "  Write  ; "  "  Go  thou ; " 
"  Be  satisfied." 

The  infinitive  *  represents  an  attribute  as  an  abstract 
noun  ;  as,  "  to  be  rich ; "  "  to  write." 

The  indicative,  potential  and  imperative  modes  are 
used  in  principal  propositions.  The  subjunctive  is  always 
nsed  in  subordinate  propositions,  and  the  infinitive  and 
participles,  in  abridged  propositions. 

*  The  infinitive  is  here  placed  among  the  modes,  because  it 
has  been  thus  ranked  by  common  consent ;  yet  it  is  as  really  a 
participle  as  the  forms  which  bear  that  name.  It  does  not  assert 
action  at  all,  and  therefore  cannot  properly  be  said  to  have  mode. 
It  is  the  simple  name  of  the  verb,  taken  abstractly,  and  partakes 
of  the  properties  of  the  noun  and  verb,  just  as  the  participle  par- 
takes of  the  propptties  of  the  adjective  and  verb.  Both  are  used 
in  abridged  propositions,  (347,  353,)  one  in  reducing  substantive 
ftnd  the  other  in  leducing  adjective  clauses. 


fARTIClPLES.  225 

Note.  The  indicative  and  potential  modes  are  of\en  used  in 
Bubordinate  propositions.  The  imperative  mode  is  sometimes 
made  subordinate  in  direct  quotation ;  as,  "  God  said,  Let  there 
be  light." 

PARTICIPLES. 

A  participle  is  a  form  of  the  verb  by  which  the  being 
action,  or  state,  is  used  as  an  adjective. 

The  participle  is  so  called,  because  it  participates  of  the  proper- 
ties of  the  verb  and  adjective.     (See  65,  a.) 

There  are  two  participles,  —  ihe present  a.nd  j^erfect ;  as, 
reading,  having  read.   , 

These  two  participles  correspond  to  the  present  and  perfect 
tenses  in  each  of  the  three  grand  divisions  of  time.     (81,  a.) 

Transitive  verbs  have  an  active  and  passive  participle. 

EXAMPLES. 
ACTIVE.  PASSIVE. 

Present.     Loving,  Loved  or  being  loved. 

Perfect.      Having  loved,         Having  been  loved. 

Though  there  are  biit  two  distinct  participles,  there  are 
tliree  different  forms  called  participles,  (see  89,)  —  the 
•present,  the  pa^t,  and  the  perfect. 

The  past  participle  is  never  used  except  in  combination  with  / 
some  modification  of  have,  to  form  the  perfect  tenses  ;  as,  have 
loved,  had  loved,  to  have  loved,  having  loved.  It  belonarg  to  all 
verbs,  transitive  and  intransitive.  It  has  an  active  sio-nifica- 
tion,  denotes  past  time,  but  is  never  used,  like  the  other  forms,  tt, 
limit  a  noun  by  expressing  an  assumed  attribute.  Its  entire  use 
is,  to  aid  in  the  formation  of  the  tenses.  The  past  particip.e  la, 
however,  identical  in  form  v/ith  the  present  passive  participle, 
when  used  without  being.  Mark  the  difference  in  the  follow- 
ing  examples  :  — "  The  boy  has  respected  the  wishes  of  his  pa 
rents;  "  "The  boy  lives  (being)  respected  by  all."  In  tha  Ips! 
exainple,  "  respected  "  has  a  passive  signification,  denotes  presenf 


n 


226  APF£NDO. 

time,  and  limits  "  boy  "  by  assuming  (not  affirming)  that  he  is  iu 
a   certain   state.     This  last  is  called  the  passive  participle  of 
"respect;  "  respecting  being  the  corresponding  active  participle 
Intransitive  verbs  liave  no  passive  participle. 

The  present  active  participle  denotes  an  action  or  state 
present  but  unfinished  at  the  time  denoted  by  the  principal 
verb  ;  as,  "  Wq  found  him  sitting  in  a  chair." 

The  present  passive  participle  denotes  the  reception  of 
an  act,  which  is  present  at  the  time  denoted  by  the  prin- 
cipal verb ;  as,  "  He  lives  loved  by  all." 

The  perfect  active  participle  denotes  an  action  or  state 
past  and  completed  at  the  time  denoted  by  the  pnncipal 
verb ;  as,  "  Having  finished  his  speech,  he  sat  down." 

The  perfect  passive  participle  denotes  the  reception  of 
an  act  past  and  completed  at  the  time  denoted  by  the  prin- 
cipal verb ;  as,  "  Having  heen  driven  from  home,  he  en- 
listed in  the  army." 

.X  Participles,  like  the  subordinate  clauses  for  which  they  stand 
(^see  note,  page  175,)  denote  a  time  present  or  past  in  relation  to 
the  principal  verb,  and  not  in  relation  to  the  speaker.  Hence 
the  present  participle  may  denote,  with  reference  to  the  speaker, 
present,  past,  OT  future  time.  So  the  perfect  participle  may  de- 
note an  act  completed  in  past,  present,  or  future  time.  It  is 
worthy  of  notice,  that  each  grand  division  of  time  has  two 
tenses,  —  ^present  and  a  perfect  (81,  a.)  ;  and  that  this  distinctioi^ 
exists  in  all  the  verbal  forms,  the  infinitive  and  participles  as 
well  as  the  modes  properly  so  called. 

A  participle,  like  an  adjective,  may  be  either  assumed  or 
predicated  of  a  noun ;  as,  "  A  boat  sailing  on  the  water 
IS  a  pleasant  object  •  "  "  The  boat  is  sailing  on  the  water." 

An  assumed  pariicipiC,  with  the  words  depending  upor 
it,  is  equivalent  to  a  subordinate  clause. 

The  active  participle,  when  predicated,  constitutos,  with 
the  copula,  the  progressive  form  of  the  verb  ;  a?  "  The 
farmer  was  retqntif/.'' 


TENSE    OF    THE     VERB.  227 

7Tie  passive  participle,  when  predicated,  forms,  with  tne 
•''opula,  the  passive  verb ;  as,  "  His  expectations  wfire 
reahzed.''' 

Note.     Foi  participial  nouns,  see  page  86. 


LESSON    XI. 

TENSE    OF    THE    VERB. 

Tense  denotes  the  time  of  an  action  or  event. 

There  are  three  divisions  of  time,  —  the  past,  the  pres- 
ent, and  the  future. 

Each  division  has  two  tenses,  —  an  absolute  and  a  rela- 
tive. There  are,  therefore,  six  tenses,  —  three  absolute 
and  three  relative. 

The  absolute  tenses  take  the  name  of  the  division  to 
which  they  belong,  namely,  the  present  tense,  the  past 
tense,  and  the  future  tense. 

The  relative  tenses  add  to  the  name  of  the  division  the 
word  "  perfect ; "  — present  perfect,  past  perfect,  future 
perfect. 

The  present  tense  denotes  present  time  ;  as,  "I  write,''^ 

The  present  perfect  tense  denotes  past  time  completed 
in  the  present ;  as,  "  I  have  written.'*'^ 

The  past  tense  denotes  past  time  ;  as,  "  I  wrotey 

The  past  perfect  tense  denotes  past  time  completed  in 
the  past ;  as,  "  I  had  written.'^'* 

The  future  tense  denotes  future  time ;  as,  "  I  shali 
write. ""^ 

The  future  perfect  tense  denotes  a  future  time  com- 
pteted  in  the  future;  as,  "I  shall  have  written,  * 


•  228 


APPENDIX. 


FORMS    OF    THE    VERB. 

There  are  three  different  forms  of  the  verb,  in  the  ac 
tive  voice,  namely,  the  common^  the  emphatic^  the  progns- 
sive ;  to  these  may  be  added  the  passive. 

COMMON  FORM. 

The  tenses  of  the  common  form  are  thus  formed :  — 


Shsolute 
Tenses. 


Relative 
Tenses. 


INDICATIVE     MODE. 

The  present  is  the  first  or  simple  form  of  the  verb , 
as,  love. 
.       The  past  is  the  second  form  of  tlie  verb ;  as,  loved 
The  future  is  formed  by  joining  to  the  simple  verb 
V^the  auxiliary s/iftZZ  or  will;  as,  shall  lovc^will  love. 

The  present  perfect  is  formed  by  joining  the  present 
tense  of  have  to  the  past  participle  of  the  verb ;  as, 
have  loved. 

The  jiast  perfect  is  formed  by  joining  the  past  tense 
of  have  to  the  past  participle  ;  as,  had  loved. 

The  future  perfect  is  formed  by  joining  the  future 
tense  of  have  to  the  past  participle ;  as,  shall  have  lovcA. 


\ 


POTENTIAL     MODE. 

(  The  present  potential  is  formed  by  joining  the  pres- 
ent tense  of  7nay.,  can^  or  must.,  to  the  simple  or  first 

Jibsolute      fori^  of  the  verb ;  as,  way,  caw,  or  must  love.. 

Tenses.  ^  ^^^^  P"'^^  potential  is  formed  l»y  joining  the  past 
tenses  of  may^  can,  will,  or  shall,  lo  the  simple  form 
of  the  verb ;  as,  might,  could,  would,  or  .should  love. 

The  present  perfect  is  formed  by  joining  ihe  present 
potential  of  have  to  the  past  participle  ;  as,  vxay,  can. 
Relative      or  must  have  loved. 

Tenses.    \      The  past  perfect  is  formed  by  joining  the  past  po- 
tential of  have  to  the  past  participle  ;  as,  might,  could^ 
I  would  or  should  have  loved. 


i 


FOKMS    OF    THE    VERB.  229 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MODE- 

The  subjunctive  mode  is  the  same  in  form  as  the  indica- 
tive or  potential,  with  if,  unless^  though  &c.,  prefixed;  as, 
if  I  love  f  if  I  can  love. 

IMPERATIVE    MODE. 

The  imperative  has  but  one  tense,  —  ihe present,  —  which 
is  the  simple  form  of  the  verb,  generally  used  without  the 
subject  expressed ;  as,  love. 

INFINITIVE     MODE. 

The  infinitive  mode  has  two  tenses,  —  a  present  and  a 
perfect.  The  present  is  the  first  form  of  the  verb  joined 
to  to ;  as,  to  love. 

The  perfect  is  formed  by  joining  the  present  infinitive  of 
have  to  the  past  participle  of  the  verb ;  as,  to  have  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

The  present  participle  is  formed  by  adding  ing  to  the 
first  form  of  the  verb ;  *  as,  loving. 

The  past  participle  is  formed,  for  regular  verbs,  by  add* 
ing  ed  to  the  simple  verb ;  *  as,  loved. 

The  perfect  participle  is  formed  by  joining  the  present 
participle  of  have  to  the  past  participle ;  as,  having  loved. 


EMPHATIC    FORM. 

The  emphatic  form  belongs  to  the  active  voice  of  the , 
mdicative  and  imperative  modes.     It  is  formed  by  joining 
the  auxiliary  do  to  the  first  form  of  the  verb,  for  the  pres- 

*  When  the  simple   verb  ends  in  c,  the  e  should  be  dropped 
before  the  addition  is  made ;  as,  love,  \o7-ing  or  ed. 

20 


230 


APPENCIX. 


ent  tense,  and  did  to  the  same,  for  the  past  tense  ;  as,  do 
love^  do  thou  love,  did  love. 

PROGRESSIVE   FORM. 

The  progressive  form  is  the  common  form  of  the 
copula  to  he  added  to  the  present  participle ;  as,  am 
loving,  have  been  loving,  &:;c. 

PASSIVE   FORM. 

The  passive  form  is  the  common  form  of  the  copula 
to  he  joined  to  the  passive  participle,  (same  in  form  as 
the  past  participle ;)  as,  is  loved,  has  heen  loved,  &c. 


CONJUGATION 


The  conjugation  of  a  verb  is  the  regular  arrangement 
of  its  several  modes,  tenses,  voices,  numbers,  and  persons. 
The  following  is  the  conjugation  of  the  verb  TO  BE. 


INDICATIVE     MODE. 

Absolute   Tenses. 
Present  Tense. 


Singular. 

Plural. 

1. 

1  am. 

We  are. 

2. 

Thou  art.* 

You  are.t 

3. 

He  is. 

Past  Tense. 

They  are. 

Sivgular. 

Plural. 

1. 

J  was. 

We  were. 

2. 

Thou  wast 

You  were. 

3. 

He  was. 

They  were. 

*   Tkou  is  used  in  the  solemn  or  poetical  style,  but  you  is  used 
in  the  singuhir  in  the  common  style  ;  as,  /  am,  you  are,  he  is 
t   Fe  is  also  used  in  the  plural ;  thus,  Ye  or  you  are 


CONJUGATION    OF    THE    VERB.  231 

Future  Tense 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  be.  We  -hall  or  will  bo 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  be.  You  shall  or  will  be. 
3    He  shall  or  will  be.  They  shall  or  will  be. 

Kelative  Tenses. 


Present  Perfect. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1. 

I  have  been. 

We  have  been 

2. 

Thou  hast  been. 

You  have  been. 

3. 

He  has  been. 

They  have  Deen. 

Past  Perfect. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1. 

I  had  been. 

We  had  been. 

2. 

Thou  hadst  been 

You  had  been. 

3. 

He  had  been. 

They  had  been. 

Future  Perfect. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1. 

I  shall  liave  been. 

We  shall  have  been 

2. 

Thou  wilt  have  been. 

You  will  have  been. 

3.   He  will  have  been.  They  will  have  been. 

POTENTIAL     MODE. 

Absolute  Tenses. 

Present  Tense. 


Singular. 

Plural. 

1.    I  may  be. 

We  may  be. 

2.    Thou  mayst  be. 

You  may  be. 

3.    He  may  be. 

They  may  be 

Past 

Tense. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1     1  mio;ht  be.  We  mijjht  be. 

2.  Thou  mightst  be.  You  might  be. 

3.  He  might  be.  They  might  be 


232 


APPENDIX 


Eeiative  Tenses. 

Present  Perfect. 
Singtilar.  Plural. 

1.  1  may  have  been  We  may  have  been. 

2.  Thou  ma^st  have  been.  You  may  have  been. 

3.  He  may  have  been.  They  may  have  been. 


Past  Perfect 


Singular. 

1.  1  micrhl  have  been. 

2.  Thou  miglitsl  have  been. 
3     lie  mio-ht  have  been. 


Plural. 
We  might  have  been. 
You  mitjht  have  been. 
They  might  have  been 


SUBJUNCTIVE     MODE. 

Absolute  Tenses. 


Present  Tense. 

Plural. 
If  we  are. 
If  you  are 
If  they  are 

Past  Tense. 

Plural. 
If  we  were. 
If  you  were 
If  they  were 

Future  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  shall  or  will  be.  If  we  shall  or  will  be. 

2.  If  thou  shal;  or  wilt  be.  if  you  shall  or  will  be, 

3.  If  he  shall  or  will  be.  If  they  shall  or  will  be. 

Relative  Tenses. 

Present  Perfect. 


Singular. 

1  If  I  am. 

2  If  thou  art 

3  If  he  is. 


Stngtdar. 
1     If  I  was. 

2.  If  thou  wast 

3.  II'  he  was. 


Singular. 

Plural. 

1. 

If  I  have  been. 

If  we  have  been. 

2 

If  thou  hast  been. 

If  you  have  been. 

3. 

If  he  has  been 

If  they  have  been 

CONJUGATION    OF     THE    VERB. 


23S 


Past  Perfect. 

Singular.  Phiral. 

1.  If  I  had  been.  If  we  had  been. 

2.  If  thou  hadst  been.  If  you  had  been. 

3.  If  he  had  been.  If  they  had  been. 

Future  Perfect. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.    If  I  shall  have  been.  If  we  shall  have  been. 

2    If  thou  shalt  have  been.  If  you  shall  have  been. 

3.    If  he  shall  have  been.  If  they  shall  have  beea. 

besides  the  forms  already  given,  the   subjunctivr   ^*na 
dii<*ther  for  the  present  and  past. 

Present  Tense. 

Singtdar.  '      Plural. 

If  I  be.  If  we  be. 


2. 

If  thou  be. 

If  you  be. 

3. 

If  he  be. 

Past  Tense. 

If  they  be. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

If  I  were. 

If  we  were. 

2. 

If  thou  wert. 

If  you  were. 

3. 

If  he  were. 

If  they  were 

IMPERATIVE     MODE. 

Present  Tense. 


Singular. 
Be,  or  Be  thou. 


Plural. 
Be  ye  or  you. 


INFINITIVE     MODE. 


Present 

Tense, 

To  be. 

Present  Perfect, 

To  have  teen 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, 

Being. 

Past, 

Been. 

Perfect, 

Having  been. 

234  APPENDIX. 

Synopsis  IS  a  short  view  of  a  verb,  showing  its  forma 
through  the  modes  and  tenses  in  a  single  number  and 
person 

The  following  is  a  synopsis,  1st  pers.  sing,  of  HAVE  :  — 

INDICATIVE     MODE. 

Absolute  Tenses. 

1  have  I  had.  I  shall  nave. 

Relative  Tenses. 

I  have  had,  1  had  had,  1  shall  have  had. 

Let  the  learner  write  out  the  second  and  third  pei'sons 
in  the  same  mu.nner,  and  complete  the  synopsis  m  all  the 
modes. 


The  regular  verb  LOVE  is  thus  conjugate-  . 

INDICATIVE    MODE.     "~ 

Note.  The  four  forms  *  —  the  common^  emphatic^ progressive^ 
jind  passive  —  are  arranged  together.  The  pronouns  are  placed  at 
the  head  of  the  column,  and  should  be  taken  in  connection  with 
the  forms  below  them.  When  read  downwards,  the  several  forms 
in  each  person  will  be  given;  when  read  across  the  page,  the 
several  persons  in  each  form  will  be  given. 


Present  Tense. 

1 

...Singular. 

^....Singular. 

3....  Singular 

I 

Thou 

He,  She,  It 

Com. 

love, 

lovest. 

loves. 

Em  p. 

do  love, 

dost  love, 

does  love. 

Prog. 

am  loving, 

art  loving, 

Is  loving. 

Pas. 

am  loved. 

art  loved. 

is  loved. 

*  The  three  forms  of  the  active  voice  only  are  given  in  the 
Lody  of  the  work,  page  42.  It  is  thought  best  here  to  bring  alj 
the  forms  together,  that  tlie  learner  may  see  them  at  one  view. 


COFJUGATION    OF    THE    VERB. 


235 


1..  .Plural. 

2....  Plural. 

3....  Plural 

We 

Ye  or  Yoo 

They 

Com.     love, 

love. 

love, 

Emp.    do  love, 

do  love, 

do  love, 

Prog,    are  loving, 

are  loving, 

are  loving. 

Pas       are  loved, 

are  loved, 
Past  Tense. 

are  loved. 

l....Sininilar. 

2....  Singular, 

3.. ..Singular 

ID 

I 

Thou 

He,  She,  It 

Com.     loved, 

lovedst. 

loved, 

Emp.    did  love. 

didst  love. 

did  love. 

Prog.    »vas  loving, 

v/ast  Icving, 

was  loving 

Pas.      was  loved, 

wast  loved. 

was  loved. 

I....  Plural. 

2... .Plural. 

3.... Plural. 

We 

Ye  or  You 

They 

Com.     loved. 

loved, 

loved, 

Emp.     did  love. 

did  love. 

did  love. 

Prog,    were  loving. 

were  loving. 

were  loving, 

Poj.      wcie  loved. 

were  loved, 

were  loved 

Future  Tense. 

1...  Singular. 

2....  Singular. 

3....  Singular. 

I 

Thou 

He,  She,  It 

Com      shall  *  love. 

shalt  love. 

shall  love. 

Prog,    shall  be  loving. 

shalt  be  loving. 

shall  be  loving, 

Pa«.      shall  be  loved, 

shalt  be  loved. 

shall  be  loved 

\... .Plural. 

2... .Plural. 

3.... Plural. 

We 

Ye  or  You 

They 

Com.,     shall  love. 

shall  love, 

shall  love. 

Proo^.    shall  be  loving. 

shall  be  loving. 

shall  be  loving, 

Pas.      shall  be  loved, 

shall  be  loved. 

shall  be  loved. 

Present  Perfect. 
l....Sincrular.  2....Sin(rular.  3....Sinff7ila.r 

I  Tnor  He,  She,  It 

Com.     have  loved,  hast  loved,  has  loved. 

Prog,    have  been  loving,     hast  been  loving,  has  been  loving. 
Pas.      have  been  loved,      hast  been  loved,     has  been  loved. 

*  The  pupil  should  be  accustomed  to  use  either  auxiliary,  shall 
or  will.     Shall  denotes  a  determination ;  wiU  predicts. 


23G 


APPENDIX. 


1  ...Plural.  2. ...Plural.  3,    Plural. 

We  Ye  or  You  They 

Com.     have  loved,  have  loved,  have  loved, 

Prog     have  been  loving,  have  been  loving,  have  been  loving 

Pas.      have  been  loved,  have  been  loved,  have  been  loved. 


1. 


..Singular. 


Past  Perfect. 

2....  Singular. 
I  Thou 

Com.     had  loved,  hadst  loved, 

Prog,    had  been  loving,      hadst  been  loving, 
Pas      had  been  loved,        hadst  been  loved, 


Com,. 

Prog. 

Pas. 


1... .Plural.  2.... Plural. 

We  Ye  or  You 

had  loved,  had  loved, 

had  been  loving,  had  been  loving, 

had  been  loved,  had  been  loved. 


3....  Singular. 
He,  She,  It 
had  loved, 
had  been  loving, 
had  been  loved. 

3. ...Plural. 
They 
had  loved, 
had  been  loving 
had  been  loved 


Future  Perfect. 


1....  Singular. 

2.. ..Singular 

I 

Tnoa 

Com. 

shall  have  loved, 

shalt  have  loved. 

Prog. 

shall  have  been  loving, 

shalt  have  been  loving, 

Pas. 

shall  have  been  loved, 

shalt  have  been  loved, 

3...  Singular. 

He,  She, 

It 

Com.     shall  have 

loved, 

Prog,    shall  have  been  loving, 

Pas.      shall  have  been  loved. 

Com. 

Prog. 

Pas. 


1.... Plural. 
We 

shall  have  loved, 
shall  have  been  loving, 
shall  have  been  loved, 


2. ...Plural. 
Ye  or  You 
shall  have  loved, 
shall  have  been  loi»»ng, 
shall  have  been  loved. 


3. ...Plural. 
They 
Com.     shall  have  loved. 
Prog,    shall  have  been  loving, 
Pas.     shall  have  been  loved 


^ 


CONJUGATION    OF    THE    VERB 


237 


POTENTIAL     MODE, 


Present  Tense. 


1  .   Singular. 

2....  Singular. 

3. ...Singular 

I 

Thou 

He,  Sh^,  It, 

Com 

may*  love, 

mayst  love, 

may  love, 

Prog 

may  be  loving, 

raayst  be  loving. 

may  be  loving 

Pas. 

may  be  loved. 

mayst  be  loved, 

may  be  loved. 

1.... Plural. 

2....Plural. 

3... .Plural. 

We 

Ye  or  You 

They 

Com. 

may  love, 

may  love, 

may  love, 

Prog. 

may  be  loving, 

may  be  loving. 

may  be  iovmg, 

Pas. 

may  be  loved, 

may  be  loved. 
Fast  Tense. 

may  be  loved. 

i... .Singular. 

2....  Singular. 

3. ...Singular. 

I  Thou  He,  Sh/,  It, 

Com.     might  love,  mightst  love,  might  love, 

Prog,    might  be  loving,  mightst  be  loving,  might  be  loving 

Pas.      might  be  loved,     mightst  be  loved,  might  be  loved. 

1... .Plural.  2.. ..Plural. 

We  Ye  or  You 

Com.     might  love,  might  love. 

Prog,    might  be  loving,  might  be  loving. 
Pas.      mio"ht  be  loved,    mio-ht  be  Icved, 


'i... .Plural. 

They 

niiglit  love, 
might  be  loving, 
mifrht  be  loved 


Present  Perfec     Tense. 


I.... Singular. 


I 


Com.     may  have  loved. 
Prog,   -may  have  been  loving. 
Pas.      may  have  been  loved, 


2.. ..Singular. 
Thou 

mayst  l.ave  loved, 
mavst  have  been  lovingr 
mayst  have  been  loved, 


*  Let  the  pupil  use  also  the  auxiliaries  can  and  musty  in  the 
present  and  present  perfect  tenses ;  and  could,  icould,  and  shou.d, 
in  the  past  and  past  perfect  tenses. 


238  APPENDIX. 

^....Singular. 
He,  She,  It 
Com.     may  have  loved, 
Prog,   may  have  been  loving, 
Pas.      may  have  been  loved. 

1.... Plural.  2. ...Plural. 

We  Ye  or  You 

Com,     may  have  loved,  may  have  loved, 

Prog     may  Jiave  been  loving,  may  have  been  loving 

Pas.      may  have  been  loved,  may  have  been  loved, 

d..  .Plural. 
They 
Com.     may  have  loved, 
Prog,   may  have  been  loving, 
Pas.     may  have  been  loved. 

Past  Perfect  Tense. 

1....  Singular.  2....  Singular. 

I  Tnou 

Com.     might  have  loved,  mightst  have  loved, 

Prog,    might  have  been  loving,  mightst  have  been  loving 

Pas.      might  have  been  loved,  mightst  have  been  loved. 


S....  Singular. 

He,  She,  It 

Coin. 

might  have  loved. 

Prog. 

,    might  have  been  loving. 

Pas. 

might  have  been  loved. 

..PIZIT 

al.                                2....PI 

We  Ye  or  You 

Com      might  have  loved,  might  have  loved, 

Prog     miglit  ha\/e  been  loving,  might  have  been  loving, 

Pas.      might  have  been  loved,  might  have  been  loved. 

Z... .Plural. 
They 
Com.     might  have  loved. 
Prog,   might  have  been  loving. 
Pas.      might  have  been  loved 


CUAJUGATION    OF    THE     VERB.  239 


SUBJUNCTIVE     MODE. 

The  subjunctive  mode  is  the  same  as  the  indicative  oi 
potential,  with  (f  prefixed, 

IMPERATIVE     MODE. 

Singular.  Plural, 

Common  Form^       Love,  or  Love  thou,  Love,  or  Love  ye  or  yen, 
Emphatic  Form^      Do  thou  love,  Do  ye  or  you  love, 

Progressice  Form,,  Be  thou  loving,  Be  ye  or  you  loving, 

Passive  Fornix         Be  thou  loved,  Be  ye  or  you  loved. 

INFINITIVE     MODE. 

Present  Tense. 

Covnnon  Form^  To  love. 

Progressive  Form,        To  be  loving. 
Passive  Form,  To  be  loved. 

Perfect  Tense. 

Common  Form,  To  have  loved, 

Progressive  Form,       To  have  been  loving, 
Passive  Form^  To  have  been  loved. 

PARTICIPL  E  S. 

r  Loving,  (comvion  form,) 
Present,    I  Being  loving,  (^jjrogrcssivc  form,) 

\  Being  loved,  or  loved,  (passive  form ) 

Past,  Loved,  (used  only  in  combination.) 

/  Having  loved,  (common  form.,) 
Perfect,     ^  FJaving  been  loving,  (progressive  form^) 
(  Having  been  Icved,  (passive  form.) 

Note.     Some  few  intransitive  verbs  take  the  passive  form  •  as, 
1*  I  am  come;  "  «'  The  sun  is  risen;  "  "He  is  fallen." 


<. 


240  APPENDIX. 

LESSON    XII. 

ADVERBS. 

A?J  adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  u 
rerZ*,  adjective,  participle^  or  other  adverh. 

Adverbs  may  be  divided  into  four  general  classes :  — 
adverbs  o^ place ^  o^  time,  o^  cause ^  oi  manner. 

Adverbs  of  place  answer  the  questions,  Where  7  Whitli- 
?r  ?  Whence  7  as,  Aere,  there^  ahove^  yonder,  beloio,  some- 
where, back,  upioards,  downwards,  &c. 

Adverbs  of  time  answer  the  questions.  When  ?  How 
long  ?  How  often  ?  as,  then,  yesterday,  always,  ever,  con- 
'inually,  often,  frequently ,  &c. 

Adverbs  of  cause  answer  the  questions,  Why  7    Where- 

Ore  ?  as,  lohy,  wherefore,  therefore,  then. 

Note.  Causal  relations  are  commonly  expressed  by  phrases 
and  clauses.    (See  132,  a.) 

Adverbs  of  manner  answer  the  question.  How  ?  as,  ele- 
gantly, faithfully,  fairly,  &c.  They  are  generally  derived 
from  adjectives  denoting  quality. 

Under  this  head  may  be  classed  those  which  answer  the  ques- 
tion, How  ?  in  respect  to  quantity  or  quality ;  as,  How  much  ? 
How  good?  &c. ;  as,  too,  very,  greatly,  chiefly,  perfectly,  mainly, 
wholly,  totally,  quite,  exceedingly. 

Modal  adverbs  belong  to  this  class.  (See  134,  a.)  The  fol- 
iowing  are  the  principal  modal  adverbs  :  —  7jes,  yea,  verily,  truly, 
surely,  undoubtedly,  doubtless,  forsooth,  certainly ;  no,  nay,  not . 
possibly,  probably,  perhaps,  peradventure,  perchance. 

All  phrases  or  clauses  which  denote  place,  tim,e,  cause, 
or  manner,  are  of  the  nature  of  adverbs. 

COMPARISON    OF   ADVERBS. 

Many  adverbs,  like  adjectives,  admit  of  comparison ;  as, 
eoouy  sooner  soonest ;  bravely  more  bravely,  most  bravely, 


/ 


PREPOSITIONS. 


INTERJECTIONS 


24). 


Note.     For  interrogative    and   conjunctive  adverbs,   see   Les- 
eonsXIV.  andXV. 


LESSON    XliI 


PREPOSITIONS 


Note.  For  the  construction  and  use  of  the  prepositions,  g<e 
Chapter  11. 

A. preposition  is  a  word  used  to  show  the  relation  be- 
tween a  noun  or  pronoun  and  some  preceding  word  ;  as, 
tipon^  on,  ivith. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  prepositions  in 
use  :  — 


Aboard, 

before. 

for, 

throughout, 

about. 

behind. 

from, 

Ull, 

above, 

^  below, 

in,   into. 

to, 

according  to. 

beneath, 

notwithstanding. 

touching, 

across, 

beside  or 

of, 

toward  or 

after. 

besides. 

off, 

towards, 

against, 

between. 

on, 

under. 

along, 

betwixt, 

out  of. 

underneath, 

amid  or 

beyond, 

over. 

until. 

amidst, 

by, 

past. 

unto. 

among  or 

concerning, 

regarding. 

up, 

amongst, 

down, 

respecting, 

upon. 

around, 

during, 

round, 

with, 

at, 

except. 

since, 

withm, 

athwart. 

excepting. 

through, 

without 

INTERJECTIOJNS. 

An  interjection  is  a  word  used  to  express  some  emotion 
of  the  mind  ;  as,  oh  /  alas  f 

f Jiterjectiong  are  to  be  found  chie^y  in  sentences  expressive  of 
joy,  sorrow,  or  reverence. 

91 


242  APPENDIX. 

LESSON    XIV 

INTERROGATIVES. 

Note.  This  lesson  should  be  studied  in  connection  with 
Section  IX.  page  121 

Inter rogatives  are  words  used  in  asking  questions. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  interrogatives,  —  pronouns,  ad- 
\jectives^  and  adverbs. 

Interrogative  jjronouns  are  used  to  inquire  for  some  pei 
son  or  thing.     They  are  jvho.,  ivhich,  and  loJiat, 

Who  is  used  to  inquire  for  persons  ;  2vhat,  as  a  pronoun, 
inquires  for  things  ;  which  refers  to  one  of  several  persons 
or  things ;  as,  "  Who  wrote }  James.''^  "  ^V}lat  do  you 
see  }     A  iree."     '•''Which  shall  I  take?  The  largest  oupy 

Interrogative  adjectives  are  used  to  inquire  for  some  de- 
scription of  a  person  or  thing.  They  are,  lahich,  ivliat.^ 
joined  to  the  noun  to  be  described ;  how  many,  used  to  in- 
quire for  number  ;  as,  "  What  book  have  you  ?  A  blank 
book."  "  Which  path  shall  we  follow  ?  The  right-hand 
path."  "  IIoiv  many  lessons  has  he  learned  ?  Four 
lessons." 

Interrogative  adverbs  inquire  for  some  circumstance  of 
place,  time,  cause,  or  manner ;  as,  "  Where,  when,  why, 
how,  did  he  go  ^  " 

For  a  list  of  the  several  interrogatives,  see  H  258,  ( a.) 


LESSON    XV. 

CONNECTIVES 

Connectives  are  words  used  to  unite  the  elements  of  b 
sentence  ;  as,  "  When  a  wise  man  is  derided  by  a  fooMr 
he  will  not  be  indignant." 


CONNECTIVES.  243 

Connectives  are  divided  into  two  classes,  —  coordinate 
and  subo'<^dinate. 

Coordinate  connectives  are  always  conjunctions.  They 
are  used  to  unite  either  coordinate  clauses  or  coordinate 
parts  of  a  clause ;  as,  "  Life  is  short,  and  art  is  long  ; " 
"  Vice  and  miseiy  are  inseparable." 

Coordinate  conjunctions  are  of  three  kinds,  —  copulative^ 
adversative,  and  alternative.     (See  ^  157,  and  Sections  I 
il,  and  III    Chapter  IV.) 

A  sulordinate  connective  is  used  to  join  a  subordinate 
clause  to  some  preceding  word  or  clause  ;  as, "  I  knew  that 
he  was  deceitful." 

Subordinate  connectives  are  conjunctions.,  relative  pro- 
nouns,  and  conjunctive  adverbs. 

Subordinate  connectives  are  used  to  connect  the  three 
kinds  of  clauses,  —  substantive,  adjective,  and  adverbidl. 

Substantive  clauses  are  connected  by  that  and  the  various 
interrogatives.     (See  1]  25S,  I,  2,  3.) 

Adverbial  clauses  are  connected  by  conjunctive  adverbs 

Adjective  clauses  are  connected  by  relative  pronouns. 

A  relative  pronoun  is  used  to  represent  a  preceding  aour. 
or  pronoun,  called  the  antecedent,  and  to  connect  with  ii 
the  adjective  clause  which  depends  upon  and  hniiis  it. 

For  the  different  relatives,  and  their  different  uses,  see  tscc 
tion  III.  page  135. 

Relative  and  interrogative  pronouns  have  the  same  acci- 
dents as  the  noun  or  personal  pronoun,  namely,  number 
person,  gender,  and  case,  and  are  thus  declined  :  — 

&ing.  and  Plur.  <Saig.  and  Plur 
Mm.            Who,  Which, 

Poss.  whose,  whose, 

Obj.  whom,  which. 

Instead  of  whose,  of  which  is  most  commonly  used  as  the  pos- 
epssive  of  which. 

What  and  that  are  used  only  in  the  nom'native  and  ob 
^ective  cases. 


344  APPENDIX. 


SYNTAX. 

Syntax  treats  of  the  construction  of  sentences. 

Note.  The  principles  of  construction  have  been  given  in  the 
body  of  this  work.  For  convenience  of  reference,  the  rules  are 
here  brought  together,  with  a  few  additional  notes. 

RULES. 

THE    SUBJECT. 

Rule  I.  A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  as  the  subject  of  a 
oroposition,  must  be  in  the  nominative  case.  (Page  26- 
See,  also,  ^H  33,  a,  b,  c,  I9i,  281.) 

THE    PREDICATE. 

Rule  II.  A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  with  the  copula  to 
form  the  predicate^  must  be  in  the  nominative  case,  (Page 
29.     See,  also,  ^^  198,  283.) 

Rule  111.  An  adjective  used  with  the  copula  to  form 
the  predicate^  belongs  to  the  subject.  (Page  32.  See, 
also,  V,  200.) 

NoTK  1.  Adjectives  may  thus  belong  to  a  substantive  phrasa 
or  clause:  as,  "  To  steal  is  hasc.^' 

Note  2.  Sometimes  an  adverb,  or  even  a  preposition,  is  joined 
to  the  copula,  to  form  the  predicate  ;  as,  "  Thy  glorious  day  Is 
o'er    "    '  The  boy  is  cheerful,  but  his  brother  is  not  so." 

Rule  IV.  The  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in 
number  and   person.     (Page  35.) 

Note.  Some  verbs  are  used  only  in  one  person,  and  are  hence 
ealled  unipersonal ;  as,  "  It  rnins ;  "  "  Methinks." 

THE    ADJECTIVE    ELEMENT. 

Rule  V.  An  adjective  or  participle,  ujsed  as  a  modifier ^ 
Oijlongs  to  the  noun  ui  pronoun  which  it  limits     (Page  51  ' 


SYNTAX.  246 

."^  >TE   I,    Adjectives   which   imply   number,  should   agree    in 
number  with  the  nouns  to  whicii  they  belong;  as,  "crimen;" 
'"  several  men."     When  two  numerals  precede  a  noun,  one  sin 
gular  and  the  other  plural,  the  plural  should  be  placed  next  to 
Oie  noun  ;  as,  "  the  first  two  lino.  ,  "  not  "  the  two  first  lines." 

NsTE  2.  When  objects  are  contrasted,  that  refers  to  the  first, 
and  this  to  the  last  mentioned,  as,  "  Wealth  and  poverty  are  both 
temptations  ;  that  tends  to  exc  ie  pride,  this  discontentment." 

For  the  use  of  comparatives  and  superlatives,  see  Till  61,  62, 
and  63. 

Note  3.  In  the  use  of  the  indefinite  article,  a  should  be  placed 
before  the  sound  of  a  consonant,  and  an  before  that  of  a  vowel ; 
as,  "  a  bouse  ;  "  *'  a  [yjunion ;  "  "  an  inch ;  "  "  an  Aour." 

NoTK  4.  When  the  article,  or  any  other  merely  limiting  word, 
stands  before  two  connected  adjectives,  (  1,)  it  should  be  repeated, 
if  they  'telony  to  different  objects,  as,  "a  white  and  a  red  flag," 
i.  e.  tw  J  Hag.s  ;  (2,)  it  should  be  used  but  once,  if  they  belong 
to  the  'lame  object;  as,  "  f/a's  tall  and  beautiful  tree,"  i.  e.  one 
tree. 

No7  K  5.  By  a  peculiar  idiom,  the  is  used  with  comparatives, 
to  denote  proportionate  equality  (332,  a.) ;  as,  "  The  more  1  see 
it,  the  better  I  like  it." 

Rii^LE  VI.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  identify  anotliei 
noun  or  pronoun,  is  put  by  apposition  in  the  same  case  ; 
as,  "  His  brother  George  was  absent."     (Page  53.) 

Note.  Two  or  more  proper  nanies,  or  a  title  and  a  proper 
nam(5,  applied  to  one  person,  though  in  apposition,  should  be 
take)  I  as  one  complex  noun  ;  as,  "  George  Washington  ;  "  "  Gen- 
eral Gates." 

UuLE  VII.     A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  to  Umit  another 
noun  by  denoting  possession,  must  be  in   the  possessive  ( 
case  ;    as,  "  Stephen"* s  courage  failed."     (Page  55.     See 
^  164;  see,  also,  ^  205.) 

THE   OBJECTIVK    ELEMENT. 

Rule  Vlll.     A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  as  tVe  object  of  a 
transiiive  verb  or  its  participles,  must  be  in  the  objectne 
'21  * 


246 


APPExifDIX. 


case ;  as,  "  We  paid  /iw?i,"     (Page  58.     See  ^Ij  106  ixad 
295.) 

ADVERBIAL    E  L  E  !>!  E  N  T . 

Rule  IX.  Adverbs  are  used  to  limit  verbs,  participles, 
adjectives,  and  other  adverbs.     (Page  65.)     ..^^^ 

Note.  Two  iiecfatives  occurrinir  in  the  same  sentence  render 
it  affirmative  ;  as,  "  JVor  did  they  not  perceive  their  evil  plight  ' 
s="They  did  perceive  their  evil  plight."  Two  negatives  are 
often  elegantly  used  to  express  an  affirmation,  one  being  the 
prefix  of  a  derivative  word;  as,  "JVbr  was  he  Mwsuccessful ;  " 
"Mine  is  not  an  wnwelcome  task." 

INTERJECTIONS,    AND    THE    CASE    INDE- 
PENDENT. 

Rule  X.  The  nominative  case  independent,  and  the 
mterjection,  have  no  grammatical  relation  to  the  other  parts 
of  the  sentence.     (Page  68.) 

Note  1.  A  noun  may  be  in  the  nominative  case  independent, 
(1,)  by  direct  address  ;  as,  '-'■Friends^  awake  ;  " —  (  2,)  by  exclama- 
iion  ;  as,  "  Oh,  solitude  !  "  —  ( 3,)  by  pleonasm  ;  as,  "  And  Har- 
ry's jiesh^  it  fell  away." 

Note  2.  When  a  noun  is  used  absohitely  with  a  participle,  the 
two  are  equivalent  to-  a  subordinate  clause,  and  are,  therefore, 
grammatically  related  to  the  principal  clause.     (See  IT  351.) 

CONNECTIVES. 

Note.  The  following  rules  apply  either  to  connectives  or  to 
words  in  some  way  associated  with  connectives. 

Rule  XL  Coordinate  con  junctions  are  used  to  connect 
limilar  elements.     (Page  75.) 

Rjle  XIL  When  a  verb  or  pronoun  relates  to  two  or 
more  nouns  connected  by  a  coordinate  conjunction,  — 

1st.  If  It  ag-ees  with  them  conjointly^  it  must  be  in  tne 
'liiH-al  number ; 


SYNIAX.  247 

.    2d.    But,  if  it  agrees  with  them  taken  separately,  it  must 
Lc  of  the  same  number  as  that  which  stands  rexi  to  it ;  — 
3d.    If  it  agrees  with  one,  and  not  the  other,  it  must  be 
of  the  same  number  as  that  with  which  it  agrees.     (Page 
77.) 

Rule  Xlil  A  preposition  is  used  to  show  the  relation 
of  its  object  to  the  preceding  word,  on  which  the  object 
depends ;  as,  '-'■  George  went  into  the  garden."  (Page 
85.) 

Rule  XIV.     A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  complete  the 

relation  of  a  preposition,  must  be  in  the  objective  case ;  as, 

"They  gathered  around  him.''''     (Page  85.) 

Note  1.  The  object  of  the  preposition  may  be  either  a  toordy 
■phrase^  or  clause;  as,  "  He  came  in  haste;  "  "  This  is  a  book  for 
you  to  read  ;  '"  "  Much  depends  upon  who  the  commissioners  are.*' 

Note  2.  The  objective  is  used  without  a  preposition,  after 
UJce^  nigh,  near,  and  tcorth.     See,  also,  Note,  page  109. 

Rule  XV.  The  infinitive  depends  upon  the  word  which 
t  limits ;  as,  "  We  went  to  see  you."     (Page  87.) 

Note  1.  This  rule  applies  to  the  infinitive  only  when  it  is  a 
subordinate  element  *,  when  it  is  a  principal  element,  apply  either 
Rule  I.  or  Rule  II. 

Note  2.  The  infinitive  is  often  used  after  so,  as,  too,  and  than. 
(See  ^  233,  a.) 

For  the  omission  of  the  to,  see  IT  213;  also  IT  235,  (a.) 

Rule  XVI.     Subordinate  connectives  are  used  to  join 

dissimilar  elements.     (Page  128.) 

Note,  These  connectives  jire  of  three  kinds,  —  conjunctions^ 
conjunctive  adverbs,  and  relative  'pronouns. 

Rule  XVll.      The   relative  pronoun  must  agree  with 

it«!  antecedent  m  person,  number.,  and  gender,  but  not  in 

case.     (Page  186.) 

JNoTK  I.  This  rule  is  equally  true  of  the  personal  pronouns, 
»hough  they  do  not  always,  libf;  the  relative,  have  an  immediate 
Antecedent. 


24b 


APFEiNUlX. 


Note   2.    When  the  antecedent  is  compound,  apply  Rule  XII. 

Note  3.  When  the  antecedent  is  a  collective  noun,  the  pro- 
noun should  be  in  the  plural  number,  if  the  antecedent  refers  to 
the  individuals  composing  the  collection  ;  otherwise  it  should  be 
in  the  singular ;  as,  "  The  committee  toho  were  appointed  last 
year  submitted  no  report."  If  reference  were  made  to  the  com- 
mittee as  a  body,  who  could  not  be  used,  but  which  or  that  must 
be  substituted. 

For  the  construction  of  the  relative,  see  Sect.  Ill,,  Chap  III. 


PROSODY. 

Prosody  treats  of  the  laws  of  versification. 

A  verse  is  a  succession  of  accented  and  unaccented  syl- 
lables, constituting  a  line  of  poetry. 

Verse  is  of  two  kinds,  —  rhyme  and  blank  verse. 

In  rhyme,  there  is  a  correspondence  in  sound  between 
the  last  syllables  of  different  lines. 

Blank  verse  is  v/ithout  rh5'"me. 

Accent  is  a  stress  of  the  voice  placed  upon  a  particular 
syllable,  to  distinguish  it  from  others.  Every  word  con- 
sisting of  more  than  one  syllable,  must  have  one  of  its  syl- 
lables accented. 

The  quantity  of  a  syllable  is  the  time  employed  in  utter- 
ing it.     All  syllables  are  either  long  or  short. 

A  long  syllable  is  equal  in  quantity  to  two  short  ones. 

Afoot  is  a  portion  of  verse  containing  two  or  more  syl- 
lables, combined  according  to  accent. 

The  principal  feet,  in  English,  are  the  iambus,  the 
ir<)chee,  the  anapcEst,  and  the  dactyle. 

The  iambus  consists  of  a  short  and  a  long  syllable. 


PROsoDir.  i"49 

Tlie  trochee  consists  of  a  long  and  a  slwrt  syllablt. 

The  anapaest  consists  of  two  short  syllables  and  onr  Irj.ig 
one. 

The  dactyle  consists  of  one  long  and  two  sho''t  ff]- 
lables. 

Scanning  consists  in  dividing  a  verse  into  the  fee.  w\  ti 
compose  it. 

IAMBIC    VERSE. 

1.  Iambic  of  one  foot :  — 

Thgy  go 
To  sow. 

2.  lamhic  of  two  feet :  — 

To  me  I  the  rose 
No  longer  glows. 

3.  Iambic  of  three  feet :  — 

No  Toy-   I  al  pomp  1  adorns 
This  King  of  righteousness 

4.  Iambic  of  four  feet :  — 

And  cold-  |  er  still   j  the  winds  ,   aid  blow, 
And  darker  hours  of  night  came  on. 

5.  Iambic  of  fve  feet^  or  pentameter  :  — 

On  r-*^-  i  ed  rocks,  |  the  drag-  j  on's  late  j  abodes, 
The  green  reed  trembles,  and  the  bulrush  nods. 

G.    Iambic  of  six  feet^  cr  hexameter :  — 

His  heart  |  is  sad,  j  his  hope  j  is  gone,  |  his  light  |  is  passed 
He  sits  and  mourns  in  silent  grief  the  lingering  day. 

7.    Iambic  of  seven  feet,  or  heptameter :  — 

Thg  lof-  I  ty  hill,  !  the  hflm-  I  ble  lawn,  |  with  count-  ', 

less  beati-  |  ties  shine. 
The  silent  grove,  the  solemn  shade,  proclaim  thy  power 

divine. 

Iambic  of  five  feet  is  called  heroic  verse ;  that  of  si? 
feet  is  called  Alexandrine 


250  APPEISTDIX. 

Iambic  of  seve.  ii  feet  is  commonly  divided  into  two 
lines,  —  the  first  containing  four  feet,  the  second  three 
This  is  called  common  metre ;   as, 

The  lofty  hill,  the  humble  lawn. 

With  countless  beauties  shine  ; 
The  silent  grove,  the  soiemn  shade, 

Proclaim  thy  power  divine. 

In  long  metre,  each  line  has  four  iambic  feet ;  in  short 
metre,  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  lines  contain  three 
iambic  feet,  the  third  four. 

Each  species  of  iambic  verse  may  have  one  additional 
short  syllable.     Thus,  in  the  second  species, — 

Upon  I  a  moun-  |  tain. 

TROCHAIC    VERSE. 

1.  Trochaic  of  one  foot :  — 

Changing, 
Ranging. 

2.  Trochaic  of  tico  feet :  — 

Fancf-  j  viewing, 
Joys  ensuing. 

3.  Trochaic  of  three  feet :  — 

Go  where  |  glory  j  waits  thge, 
But  when  fame  elates  thee. 

4.  Trochaic  of  four  feet :  — 

Round  a  j  holy  |  calm  dlf-  |  fOstng, 
Love  of  peace  and  lonely  musing. 

5    Trochaic  offve  feet :  — 

All  that  !   walk  6n  |  foot  6r  |  ride  in  |  chariQts, 
All  that  dwell  in  palaces  or  garrets. 

6.    Trochaic  of  six  feet :  — 

On  a  I  mountain  |  stretched,  bg-  |  ngath  a  |  hoary  |  wiliSw, 
kjay  a  shepherd  swain,  and  viewed  the  rolling  billow. 


PROSODY  2i*l 

In  trochaic  verse,  the  accent  is   placed  upon  the  odd 
syllables ;    in  iambic,  on  the  even. 

Trochaic   verse  may  take  an  additional  long  syllable  ; 

as. 

Idle,  I  after  |  dinner,   |  In  his  ]  chair 

Sat  a  farmer,  ruddy,  fat,  and  fair. 


ANAP^STIC    VERSE. 

1.  AnapcBstic  of  one  foot :  — 

But  in  vain 
They  complain. 

2.  AnapcBstic  of  tiuo  feet :  — 

Where  the  sun   |  loves  to  pause 
With  so  fond  a  delay. 

3.  AnapcEstic  of  three  feet :  — 

From  the  cen-   |  trg,  all  round  |  to  the  s5a, 
I'm  lord  of  the  fowl  and  the  brute. 

4.  AnapcBstic  of  four  feet  :  — 

At  the  close  |  of  the  day,  |  when  thg  ham    j  let  Is  still. 
And   mortals  the  sweets  of  forgetfulness  prove. 

In  anapaestic  verse,  the  accent  falls  on  every  third  syl- 
lable. The  first  foot  of  an  anapsestic  verse  may  be  an 
iambus ;  as, 

And  mor-  j  tals  the  sweets  |  of  forget-  |  fulnes!?  prOve 

DACTYLIC    VERSE 

1.  Dactylic  of  one  foot :  — 

CheerftUy, 
Fearfully. 

2.  Dactylic  of  two  feet :  — 

Free  from  ftnx-  |  ifity, 
Care  and  satiety 


25'' 


}i  APPENDIX. 


3,  Dactylic  of  ihrce  feet :  — 

Wearing  a-   j   way  in  las   j  yuuLiifulngsa, 
Loveliness,  beauty,  and  truthfulness. 

4.  Dactylic  of  four  feet :  — 

Boys  Vi^Ill  an-  |  tlcipSte,  |  lavish,  and  ]  dissip&te 
All  that  your  busy  pate  hoarded  with  care. 

Few  poems  are  perfectly  regular  in  their  feet.  The 
different  kinds  of  feet  are  often  mingled  in  the  same  verse- 
Thus  :  — 

I  come,  I  I  come ;   |  ye  have  called  |  me  long ; 

I  come  I  o'er  the  moun-  \  tains  with  light  |  and  song. 

Note.     For  exercises  in  scanning,  let  thie   pupil  apply  these, 
rules  to  different  verses  in  his  reading  lessons. 


nt^^m 


PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  written  composition 
by  means  of  points. 

These  points  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  —  those 
which  separate  the  parts  of  a  sentence,  and  those  which 
separate  entire  sentences. 

The  former  are  the  comma  (  ) ,  the  semicolon  ( ; ) ,  the 
colon  (:),  the  dash  { — ),  and  the  parenthesis  (  ),• 
the  latter  are  the  period  ( .  ) ,  the  interrogation  point  {f)x 
and  the  exclamation  point  (  !  ) . 

I.__P0INTS    USED    WITHIN    A    SENTENCE. 

The  Comma. 

The  comma  is  used  principally  to  separate  the  elements 
of  compact  sentences.     (421.) 


PUNCTUATION.  253 

The  use  of  the  comma  may  be  reduced  to  three  general 
piinciples :  — 

I.  When  the  elements  of  a  sentence  are  simple^  and  are 
arranged  in  the  natural  order,  (401,)  they  should  not  be 
separated ;  but  when  any  element  is  transposed,  loosely 
connected,  or  used  parenthetically,  it  should  be  pointed  off. 

EXAMPLES. 

"The  path  of  virtue  is  the  path  of  peace." 

"  Self-denial  is  the  sacrifice  which  virtue  mvst  make." 

^'■Intrinsically^  the  other  is  the  most  valuable." 

"  In  general^  his  work  is  superior  to  mine." 

"  He  lived,  as  he  said^  upon  a  vegetable  diet." 

(a.)  The  following  words  and  phrases  are  pointed  off  by  this 
rule  :  —  JJgain,  besides^  moreover,  nay,  hence,  thus,  formerly,  Jirst, 
secondly,  lastly,  namely,  once  more,  in  short,  in  truth,  above  all, 
on  the  contrary,  in  the  next  place. 

(  b.)  The  nominative  case  independent,  and  several  of  the  inter- 
jections, are  pointed  off  by  the  comma;  since  they  are  not  ele- 
ments  of  the   sentence,  and  consequently  are  not  closely  con-  v  i 
nected ;    as,  "  My   son,  hear   the    instructions   of  thy    father ; "    ^ 
"  For,  lo,  I  will    call   all    the  families   of  the   kingdoms  of  the 
north." 

(c.)  When  a  simple  element  ot  the  third  class  is  not  closely 
connected,  or  used  in  a  restrictive  sense,  it  is  pointed  off  by  the 
comma,  though  arranged  in  the  natural  order ;  as,  "  He  will  go, 
if  it  is  possible.^' 

II.  When  an  element  is  complex,  and  considerably 
extended,  it  should  be  pointed  off  by  the  comma. 

(a.)  By  this  rule,  the  complex  subject  of  a  simple  sentence, 
when  long,  should  be  separated  by  the  comma  from  the  predicate  ; 
as,  "  The  intermixture  of  evil  in  human  society,  serves  to  excrcito 
the  noblest  virtues  of  the  human  soul." 

(6.)  The  Clauses  of  a  complex  sentence  should  be  separated  by 
the  comma,  when  the  subordinate  clause  is  complex,  and  is  not 
used  in  a  restrictive  sense ;  as,  "  We  sometimes  forget  our 
faults,  when  we  are  not  reminded  of  them  '     Abridged  clauses 

22 


254  APPENDIX, 

(341)  generally  follow   the   same   rule   as  complete  clauses     as, 
•'  Shame  being  lost^  all  virtue  is  lost." 

( c.)  The  noun  in  apposition,  when  limited  by  several  words, 
should  be  pointed  off;  as,  "  Paul,  tke  apostle  of  the  Gentiles.' 

(  d.)  When  a  sentence  contains  several  extended  adverbial  ele- 
ments of  the  second  or  third  class,  they  should  be  separated  by 
the  comma ;  as,  "  The  ancients  separated  the  corn  from  the  ear  , 
by  causing  an  ox  to  trample  on  the  sheaves.'' 

III.     When  an   element   is   compound^  the   component 
parts  are  generally  separated  by  the  comma  ;  as,  "  Some 
^  men  sm  frequently,  deliherately,  diW&  presumptuously ^ 

(a.)   When  a  compound  element  consists  of  but  two  simple  ele- 
ments, the  parts  should  not  be  separated,  unless  the  conjunction 
which  connects  them  is  understood  ;  as,  "  Feter  and  Johri  went  up 
">  into  the  temple  ;  "  "A  hold^  decisive  blow  was  struck." 

(&.)  When  or  denotes  an  alternative  of  words,  and  not  ideas, 
the  two  connected  words  should  be  separated  by  the  comma ;  as, 
"  The  gulf  or  bay,  is  dangerous."  Nearly  allied  to  this  construc- 
tion is  that  in  which  tlie  same  word  is  repeated;  as,  "  Verily  ver- 
ily, I  say  unto  you." 

(c.)  Two  simple  elements,  so  connected  as  to  show  opposition 
or  contrast,  should  be  pointed  by  the  general  rule  ;  as,  "  Though 
deep,  yet  clear  ;  "  "  Though /aZ/e/i,  great." 

(d.)  If  both  elements  are  complex,  and  considerably  extended^ 
or  if  one  is  complex  and  the  other  is  not,  a  comma  may  be  placed 
between  them.  This  rule  applies  particularly  to  the  compound 
predicate;  as,  "  He  left,  and  took  his  brother  with  him." 

(  e.)  When  words  are  joined  in  pairs,  the  pairs  are  separated 
from  each  other,  but  not  the  words  composing  them ;  as,  "  Hope 
and  fear,  pleasure  and  pain,  diversify  our  lives." 

(/•)  When  the  conjunction  which  connects  two  elements  is 
omitted,  the  comma  takes  its  place ;  as,  "  Thomas  is  a  plain,  hon- 
est man."  So,  also,  when  a  verb  is  understood,  the  comma  take* 
its  place ;  as,  "  From  law  arises  security ;  from  security,  curioa- 
Hy  ;  from  curiosity,  knowledge." 

(g.)  When  the  connected  parts  are  clauses,  whether  coordi 


PUNCTUATICN.  255 

nate  or  subordinate,  and  are  closely  united,  they  should  be  scpa 
rated  by  the  comma ;  as,  "  Life  is   short,  and    art   is   long ;"  "  I 
neither  knew  wJuit  I  was,  where  1  was,  nor  from  whence  I  came.'''' 

The  Colon  and  Semicolon. 

The  colon  and  semicolon  are  used  chiefly  to  separate 
the  members  of  a  loose  sentence  (420) ;  as,  '•  Every  thing 
grows  old;  every  thing  passes  away;  every  thing  disap- 
pears." 

Note.  The  colon  is  now  but  little  used,  except  before  examples 
following-  the  expressions  as  follows,  the  following  examples,  in  these 
words,  &c. ;  as,  "Perform  the  following  txercises ;"  —  "He  used 
tliese  words :  "  Mr.  President,"  &c. 

(o.)  When,  in  a  complex  sentence,  "several  subordinate  clauses 
are  united  to  each  other,  having  a  common  dependence  upon  the 
principal  clause,  they  are  separated  by  the  semicolon;  as,  "Phi" 
losophers  assert  that  Nature  is  unlimited  in  her  operations ;  that 
she  has  inexhaustible  treasures  in  reserve;  that  knowledge  will 
always  be  progressive ;  and  that  future  generations  will  continue 
to  make  discoveries. 

The  Dash  and  Parenthesis. 

The  dash  is  used  where  there  is  a  significant  pause,  an 
unexpected  transition  in  the  sentence,  or  where  a  sentence 
IS  left  unfinished;  as,  "He  sometimes  counsel  takes  — 
and  sometimes  snuff;"  "But  I  must  first " 

(a.)  The  dash  is  now  frequently  used  instead  of  the  parenthesis, 
as,  "  The  colonists  —  such  is  human  nature  —  desired  to  burn  the 
town  in  which  they  had  been  so  wretched." 

The  parenthesis  is  used  to  enclose  a  part  of  a  sentence 
not  necessary  to  the  construction,  but  in  some  way  explana- 
tory of  the  meaning  of  the  sentence ;  as,  "  Consider 
(and  may  the  consideration  sink  deep  into  your  hearts)  the 
fatal  consequences  of  a  wicked  life." 


256  APPENDIX. 


11.  — POINTS    USED    AT    THE    CLOSE    OF    A 

SENTENCE 

The  Period. 

The  period  is  used  at  the  close  of  a  declarative  or  im- 
j,*erative  sentence  ;  as,  "  The  work  is  done."  "  Obey  your 
parents." 

The  period  is  also  used  to  denote  an  abbreviation ;  as, 
^'  P.  M.  ;  "  "  Dr." 

Interrogation  Point. 

An  interrogatioii  point  is  used  at  the  close  of  a  ques- 
tion ;  as,  "  Who  comes  there  ?  " 

(a.)  When  an  interrogative  sentence  is  used  as  a  subordi- 
■  nate  clause,  — 

(1.)  Tlie  interrogation  point  is  employed  when  the  clause  is 
quoted  directly  (299,  c.)  ;  as,  "  He  said,  '  Wliy  do  you  iveep  ? '  " 

(2.)  The  interrogation  point  is  not  employed  wlien  the  clause  is 
quoted  indirectly  (299) ;  as,  "  He  asked  me  why  I  wept." 

Exclamation  Point. 

An  exclamation  point  is  used  at  tlie  close  of  an  exclam- 
atory sentence  ;  as,  "  How  unsearchable  are  his  ways !  " 

(  a.)  An  exclamation  point  is  often  used  within  a  sentence,  after 
an  exclamatory  expression  or  an  interjection;  as,  "  O,  Jove  su- 
preme !  whom  men  and  gods  revere  !  "  "  Oh  '  let  soft  pity  touch 
the  mind  !  " 


OTHER    MARKS    USED    IN    IV RI TING. 

Brackets  (  [  ]  )  are  used  wlien  a  word  or  phrase  is  in 
troduced  for  explanation  or  correction ;  as,  "  He  [th^ 
teacher]  thus  explained  the  difficulty." 


MARKS    USED    IN    WRITING.  257 

The  apostrophe  (  ' )  is  used  either  to  denote  the  omission 
of  a  letter  or  the  possessive  case  ;  as,  "  o'er ;  "  "  John's.' 

The  quotation  marks  ( "  "  )  are  used  to  include  a  pas- 
sage taken  verbatim  from  some  other  author ;  as,  He  said^ 
"  I  relinquish  my  claim." 

The  asterisk  (  *  ) ,  the  ohelisk  ( t ) ,  the  doiihle  dagger 
<  I) ,  and  the  parallels  (  || ) ,  are  used  to  refer  to  notes 
in  the  margin,  or  at  the  bottom  of  the  page. 

The  caret  ( /^  )  is  used  in  writing,  to  show  that  some 
letter,   word,   or   phrase,  has   been    omitted  ;    as,   "  The 

lies 

pencil  on  the  table." 

A 

The  hyphen  ( - )  is  used  to  separate  the  parts  of  a  com- 
pound word  ;  as,  look-hinder.  When  placed  at  the  end 
of  a  line,  it  shows  that  a  word  is  divided,  the  remain- 
ing part  being  carried  to  the  next  line. 

The  ellipsis  (***)( )  is  used  to  denote  the 

omission  of  certain  letters  or  words  ;  as,  "  C  *  *  *  11 ; " 

u  k g." 

™,     ,  i    connects   a   number  of  words  with   one 

The  brace   { 

{    common  term. 

The  i7idex  ( t^  )  points  to  some  remarkable  passage. 

The  section  (  §  )  denotes  the  divisions  of  a  treatise. 

A  paragraph  ( ^  )  denotes  the  beginning  of  a  new 
subject. 

The  vowel  marks  are  the  diaeresis  (••),  placed  over 
the  second  of  two  vowels  which  are  separated;  the  lo7ig 
sound  (  -  ) ,  placed  over  a  long  vowel ;  the  breve  or  short 
sound  ( ^ ) ,  placed  over  a  short  vowel ;  and  accents,  grave 
(  ^  ) ,  acnte  (  '  ) ,  and  circumflex  (  A  ) . 

Note.  For  exercises  in  punctuation,  let  the  pupil  explain  the 
marks  in  any  passage  in  his  reading  lesson. 

22* 


258  APP£r«Xj.x. 


RULES   FOR  THE   USE  OF    CAPITAL   LETTERS 

1.  The  first  word  of  eveiy  entire  sentence  should  begin 
with  a  capital ;  as,  "  Jesus  wept." 

2.  Titles  of  honor  and  respect,  and  every  proper  name, 
and  every  adjective  derived  from  a  proper  name,  should 
begin  with  a  capital ;  as.  His  Highness,  Boston,  Bos- 
tonian. 

3.  Every' appellation  of  the  Deity  should  begin  with  a 
capital ;  as,  God,  Jehoimh,  the  Eternal. 

4.  The  first  word  of  every  line  in  poetry  should  begin 
with  a  capital. 

5.  The  words  /  and  O  should  always  be  capitals. 

6.  Any  important  word  may  begin  with  a  capital. 

7.  The  principal  words'  in  the  titles  of  books  should 
begin  with  capitals ;   as,  Pope's  "  Essay  on  Man." 

8.  The  first  word  of  a  direct  quolation,  when  the  quo- 
tation forms  a  complete  sentence  by  itself,  should  begin 


with  a  capit 


ai« 


/ 

THE   END. 


t 


'^       vJDvJ/l 


/ 


'  / 


924185 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


y 


^*f^»i.ife^ 


■  T 


!    i 


^>^k 


IL  OOWPEBTH     aV  k  CO,,.  | 

XISHEKS   ANI>   BOOKSEI.I.KKS,  \ 

PHILADELriUA, 
Invite  the  attsntion  of  the  Pnblic  t .  the  foltoning 

VALUABLE  SCHOOL-BOGlS. 


y 


\u 


)     V. 


mhxt\C%  i^to  Jerhs  til  (&n^ni\m. 

flE   PKIMAUY    ^^FOGI^  ^.PHY, 
rj^Ii^   COMMON  jr^oirlOOI.   OFOGRAf>HY. 

IB    PH^§J<3'VL    GFOORAFHY. 


IS  tinw  t;se 


r^-incpnl  dtif-s  and  towns  of  the  Unit'>d 
•i  Zngravirg?  are  of  the  very 
-  rjf  c  ■- ,    r.n.i  i;''--   >'Ooks    ha-e    ji-on    adoj^ted, 

eived  the  wai'-msat  eoa>uKnu«5tioi>s  of  those  who  have  used  or  ex- 


■d  thtic, 


ctits  0f  ^nii(l!5fr  ^timntHts. 


HNE'S  INTi.CDTTtTIO:^  TO  THE  STVBY  OF  ENGLISH  GEAMMAli 
'    /,  rsrs  or  TEE  ENGLISH  LAKGUA&E. 


,-}*ook.^ 


vjui-ni;;' 


■jl      *a 


-■» 


USAJi' SlX^hool. 


»t«£. 


■^^slb-iirn'^  ^trits  of  Sritlriiuiic?. 


•>liiirhcr 


1^  ;'J4- 


v>  ■-««     v-i--    -  c"'    >'^ 


coiwe::'s  \ 


.-  r.T  IT?  Ali.i  [EMETIC,.;^ 


r  T>  "f  •■,TrT*'"irTf  r» 


I«  urqnr?;*^    -■fih'i-  o,i«  of  i  u  otst  Jf  I  ii^^st  cop^plete  series,  in  "Wi  de- 
r  t,  ;.ow  befbrc;  *h'e  p-  '■     - 


«*««» 


•y-<»'»«iil 


